作者：伍维烈 William NG O.F.M.
FRANCISCAN PERSPECTIVES ON ECCLESIOLOGICAL MODELS
Introduction
Two anecdotes in the early biographies of St Francis of Assisi describe the deep ecclesial character of Franciscan spirituality. In the dilapidated church of San Damiano, Francis heard the crucifix asking him to 'rebuild my house'. (1)Naively, Francis went out to renovate the church buildings immediately. In another account. Pope Innocent III had a vision of Francis holding up a church falling down and in his dream this church was the Lateran Basilica, the Mother Church of the West. (2) In these narratives, the mediaeval authors employed the imagery of the Church as a building to illustrate the contribution of St Francis' charism to the life of the Church. Vatican II ecclesiology reminds one that indeed the Church is sometimes portrayed as a building of God (aedificatio Dei). (3)
The inseparable ecclesiological link of St Francis is also expressed eloquently by Julian of Speyer in the liturgy for the Feast of St Francis. The first antiphon of First Vespers reads:
Franciscus vir catholicus et totus apostolicus, ecclesiae teneri Fidem Romanae docuit, Presbyterosque monuit. (4)
After the Vatican II renewal of the Liturgy, the new Liturgy of Hours (Proper for Franciscans) retains the first half of this antiphon:
Franciscus vir catholicus et totus apostolicus, missus est in praeparationern Evangelii pads. (5)
It is clear that catholicity and apostolicity are distinctive traits of a particular ecclesial quality of St Francis. (6)Being ecclesial may imply a certain ecclesiology, implicit or explicit, for St Francis, his followers and all those inspired by him throughout the ages.
This short paper attempts to test if it is possible to construct a Franciscan ecclesiology. Specifically it will deal with a basic ecclesiological study -- the model of the Church -- with the assistance of Franciscan insights, i.e. from writings by Francis, his biographies and exhortative stories (pseudo-biographies) about him. This approach is made possible with the Vatican II ecclesiological trend of new methodological options. The new methodological options emphasise the word of God which is alive and is transmitted in the teachings of the Fathers, the Councils and the magisterium as well as the testimony of the liturgy and the Christian life of the People of God. (7) From a historical-salvific perspective, the life of this well-loved saint, as captured by the Franciscan sources, can be considered a particular testimony of the Christian life and indeed a methodological option. However, textual criticism of the Franciscan sources is a highly specialised field and is beyond the scope of this short essay.
The bulk of this paper is a typological study of the Church. Classical models such as People of God and the Body of Christ, Herald and Servant, will be reviewed from a particular Franciscan view. An alternative ecclesiological model will also be proposed. Before this, it is necessary to give a short exposition of how the Franciscan fraternity or indeed any community of a religious congregation or order - can be an expression of the Church. This is to establish the validity of using the experience of the Franciscan movement as a source for theological enrichment.
1. 2 Celano 10; Legenda Major 2:1; Legend of Three Companions 13c. In Habig, M. (ed.), St Francis ofAssisi: Writings and Early Biographies (English Ominibus of the Sources for the Life ofSt Francis) (Chicago: Franciscan Herald 1972).
2. 2 Celano 17b; Legend Major 3:10; Legend of Three Companions 51. In Habig.
3. Lumen gentium (LG) 6. In Abbot, W. (ed.). The Documents of Vatican II (London: Geoffrey Chapman 1966).
4. Antiphonale Romano-Seraphicum pro Horis Diurnis (Paris: Desclee 1928) 967.
5. Proprium Liturgia Horarum pro sodalibus Ordinis Fratrum Minorum (Madrid: OFM 1974)200.
6. See introductory notes in Armstrong, R. and Brady, 1. (eds.), Francis and Clare: The Complete Works (New York: Paulist 1982) 15-17.
7. Antbn A., Postconciliar Ecclesiology: Expectations, Results and Prospects for the Future. In Latourelle, R. (ed.),Vantican II : Assessment and perspectives ,Assessment and Perspectives, Vol.I (New York: Paulist 1989) 407-438; cf.412.
The Religious Community and the Constitutive Elements of the Church
Would it be possible to draw out an ecclesiology from the Franciscan vision? This is only permissible if it can be demonstrated that the outflow of Franciscan spirituality - especially through the community of friars - is not merely a part of the Church but an expression of the Church. For the part regarding religious life, both postconciliar and New Testament concepts must be examined with regard to Franciscanism.
In the Vatican II understanding of religious life itself, any order or congregation belongs to, and is inseparable from, the life and the holiness of the Church. (8)The same article of the Constitution on the Church states: 'the profession of the evangelical counsels, then, appears as a sign which can and ought to attract all the members of the Church to an effective and prompt fulfilment of the duties of their vocation.' Avery Dulles' sixth model of the Church -- the Church as a community of disciples-- brings out the relationship of religious community and the Church well: 'the possibility of a more radical style of discipleship was offered by the religious life.' (9) In other words, religious life is a radical expression of the Church; and, even within the Church, the religious state appears to be a contrast society. Certainly, this is an image of the Church herself, being a contrast society in relationship to the
world. Therefore, Dulles observes that 'communities of this type religious orders or basic communities] are, in a very important sense, realizations of the Church.' (10)
Religious communities, in this case the Franciscan community, suit this postconciliar ecclesiological understanding. Francis wrote in the Rule of 1221 to his friars: "The rule and life of these brothers is this: to live in obedience, in chastity and without anything of their own, and to follow the teaching and footprints of our Lord Jesus Christ...' (11) It is following Jesus Christ which gives Franciscan brotherhood an ecclesial expression in the model of a disciple-community. Indeed, this imitation of Jesus is a central thesis for the model of discipleship, as observed by Dulles: 'The discipleship model motivates the members of the Church to imitate Jesus in their personal lives.' (12) The keyword 'disciple' was used by Francis in his admonitions regarding perfect obedience, a virtue proper for one in dealing with the Church, 'The Lord says in the Gospel: He who does not renounce everything he possesses cannot be my disciple; and he who wishes to save his life must lose it.' (13)
One important New Testament understanding of the Church hinges on the constitutive elements of the Church. The 'summary of summaries' of Acts 2:42-47 is held here as the yardstick of what makes a Church perse. Four elements are seen as the prime qualities of the early Church in Jerusalem:
．the apostles' teaching
．the communion/fellowship
．the breaking of bread
．the prayers
St Francis did not start a new Church, in'the way Luther or Calvin did. Instead, he founded a brotherhood of men religious within the Catholic Church. Besides this, many lay people were attracted to his spirituality and "Third Orders' were developed. Unlike other Gospel movements of the day, Francis never asked these seculars to leave the Church or join his fraternity. Instead they were encouraged to remain obedient to the Church and to deepen their Christian commitment in the Church.
Rightly understood, the apostles' teaching refers to the teaching of Jesus himself. On the surface, the foci of teaching were different: Jesus focused on the coming of the Kingdom and the apostles focused on the death and resurrection of Jesus. Yet because the paschal mystery was precisely the realisation of the Kingdom, the apostles' teaching was the same as that of Jesus. Francis referred his order to the direct source of the apostles' teaching: 'Listen, sons of the Lord and my brothers [...]. Incline the ear of your heart and obey the voice of the Son of God.' (14)
By Francis' time, the breaking of bread had long already evolved into the Eucharistic celebration. In the same Letter to the Entire Order, Francis suggested 'only one Mass be celebrated each day in the places in which the brothers stay.' (15) Elsewhere in his admonitions, rules and letters, Francis showed great Eucharistic piety, not uncharacteristic of the culture of the time. (16) For the lay faithful, Francis saw the need of receiving the Body and Blood, especially in the context of the confession of sins. (17)
It is significant that in the above quotation Francis suggested only one Mass be celebrated, and there was no concelebration. Celebration of only one Mass -- even when there were more than one sacerdotal brother -- meant a realisation of the communion. In other words, the Mass was more important as a communion than as a source of stipends or even as an obligation of the priestly order. In this, the above two constitutive elements, apostles' teaching and breaking of bread, found their ritual celebration as the Liturgy of the Word and as the Eucharist. No wonder Francis cautioned the clergy to 'be aware of the great sin and ignorance [...] toward the most holy Body and Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ and His most holy written words which consecrate [His] Body.' (18)
An important actualisation of the fellowship finds its expression in the vow of poverty. Although Francis would not allow even communal property, sharing of material things for use would be natural. Yet for the general faithful, Francis recalled the basic attitude which formed the backbone of communion: love. He reiterated Christ's commandment of love: 'And let us love our neighbours as ourselves. And if there is anyone who does not wish to love them as himself, at least let him do no harm to them, but rather do good. [...] Let us then have charity and humility [...]. (19)
Francis saw prayer as fundamental not only for the friars but also for all of the faithful. Both the First and the Second Rules for the friars contain a detailed description of the norms regarding the Divine Office and fasting. (20) For the faithful, Francis exhorted: 'Let us praise Him and pray to Him day and night, saying "Our Father, Who art in heaven," since we should pray always and never lose heart.' (21)
In Francis' writings, certain images are used to describe the fraternity which are also valid images for the Church. For instance, there is a strong theme that the brotherhood has to be in via. In the First Rule, when explaining poverty, Francis used the phrase 'when [the brothers] go through the world' (22) to denote the itinerant nature of the friars, whereas the Second Rule borrowed a Scriptural reference (23) to describe the brothers 'as pilgrims and strangers in this world, who serve the Lord.'(24) This 'pilgrims and strangers' was again taken up in Francis' last Testament. (25) This pilgrim church image of being in via is echoed in Lumen gentium: 'While on earth she journeys (peregrinatur) in a foreign land away from the Lord, the Church sees herself in exile.' (26) One can thus boldly propose that the Franciscan expression of a community friarhood is an expression of the Church. If this is accepted, the spirituality related to the saint can be used to complement ecclesiology.
1. 2 Celano 10; Legenda Major 2:1; Legend of Three Companions 13c. In Habig, M. (ed.), St Francis ofAssisi: Writings and Early Biographies (English Ominibus of the Sources for the Life ofSt Francis) (Chicago: Franciscan Herald 1972).
2. 2 Celano 17b; Legend Major 3:10; Legend of Three Companions 51. In Habig.
3. Lumen gentium (LG) 6. In Abbot, W. (ed.). The Documents of Vatican II (London: Geoffrey Chapman 1966).
4. Antiphonale Romano-Seraphicum pro Horis Diurnis (Paris: Desclee 1928) 967.
5. Proprium Liturgia Horarum pro sodalibus Ordinis Fratrum Minorum (Madrid: OFM 1974)200.
6. See introductory notes in Armstrong, R. and Brady, 1. (eds.), Francis and Clare: The Complete Works (New York: Paulist 1982) 15-17.
7. Antbn A., Postconciliar Ecclesiology: Expectations, Results and Prospects for the Future. In Latourelle, R. (ed.),Vantican II : Assessment and perspectives ,Assessment and Perspectives, Vol.I (New York: Paulist 1989) 407-438; cf.412.
8. LG44.
9. Dulles, A., Models of the Church, Expanded Edition (Garden City, NY: Double- day 1987).
10. Dulles, 62.
11. First Rule I: I in Armstrong. Subsequent quotations of writings by St Francis are from this book. The numbering system to each paragragh is in accordance with that in the book.
12. Dulles, 222-223.
13. Admonition 3.
14. Letter to the Entire Order 5-6.
15. Letter to the Entire Order 30.
16. Ample examples can be found, such as: Letter to the Entire Order 12, 27; Testament 4,6,8, 10, 13, Admonition I and Second Letter to the Faithful 34. All these will be elaborated later.
17. Second Letter to the Faithful 22.
18. Letter to the Clergy 1.
19. Second Letter to the Faithful 26,27, 30.
20. First Rule Chapter 3; Second Rule Chapter 3.
21. Second Letter to the Faithful 21.
22. First Rule 14.
23. 1 Peter 2:11.
24. Second Rule 6.
25. Testament 24.
26. LG6.
Models of the Church: Introduction
The reality of the Church is essentially a mystery. A language of signs and symbols -- including images, models and paradigms -- can mediate the understanding of something abstract. Throughout the ages, images have been used to gain a better understanding of the mysteries of faith. (27) Dulles pushes the methodology further and suggests that 'when an image is employed reflexively and critically to deepen one's theoretical understanding of a reality it becomes [...] a model.' (28) Models become paradigms when they are successful in solving many kinds of problems and can be used for future problems. (29)
Two aspects of the use of models as mediation in ecclesiology for the discussion of St Francis and the models of the Church are important. Firstly, the historical Francis may have had a clear and distinct understanding of the essence of the Church, i.e. intentionally subscribing to only one or two 'models' of the Church. This may have been simply because that was the 'official ecclesiology' (although not necessarily a dogma) and he -- without the benefit of a liberal environment or Vatican II -- could not have chosen otherwise. That is to say, Francis may have had only one or two direct ecclesiological 'models' because they were immediate to his understanding of the Church.
Secondly, there may be other ecclesial views, besides the immediate ones, inherent in Franciscan spirituality. These views could also be expressed through the use of other models, although Francis might not have been concerned with all these sophisticated theological nuances. His own spirituality was often brought about as if based on some other particular ecclesiological models, or even paradigms. In other words, because Francis was such an ecclesial man, his spirituality could not be divorced from the mystery of the Church: any particular concept must tie in with an intermediate vision of the church, which may not have been the same as his immediate ecclesial view. Nevertheless in reality the distinction between these two is never sharp. There is an overlap between them. Francis' contribution to ecclesiology is often a mixture of these direct and indirect mediations.
27. cf Dulies, 26.
28. Dulies, 27.
29. Dulies, 29.
The Church as an Institution
In this model, the mystery of the Church is manifested as societas perfecta. As Dulles observes, 'the notion of the Church as society by its very nature tends to highlight the structure of government as the formal element in the society. [... Nevertheless,] institutionalism [...] is not the same thing as the acceptance of the institutional element in the Church.' (30) A usefill aspect of this ecclesiology is that the powers and functions of the Church [are] divided into three: teaching, sanctifying and governing.' (31) The consequential distinction into the teaching Church versus the taught Church, the sanctifying Church versus the sanctified Church and the governing Church versus the governed Church (32) truly reflects the institutional character. Yet it may, and it often does, degenerate into institutionalism.
In the history of ecclesiology, only a few such models were developed and dominated theology for each given period. St Francis lived in mediaeval times, when the institution model of the Church as societas perfecta reigned -- the Church seeing herself as an institution. Naturally Francis acquired a similar ecclesiology. This was reflected in his understanding of the magisterium, the clergy and the hierarchy. Francis had a clear idea that the friars had to conform to the teaching of the Church, i.e. being part of the taught Church. The First Rule outlined the primacy of the magisterium: 'All the brothers must be Catholics, [and] live and speak in a Catholic manner. But if any of them has strayed from the Catholic faith and life, in word or in deed, and has not amended his ways, he should be completely expelled from our frater-nity.' (33) Regarding the conditions for the acceptance of candidates, Francis wrote: "The minister should diligently examine them concerning the Catholic faith and the sacraments of the Church.' (34)
The sanctifying / sanctified Church quality was brought out by Francis in his descriptions of the clergy. He asked all the faithful to visit churches frequently and venerate and show respect for the clergy because they alone administered the holy words and blood of our Lord Jesus. (35) Therefore those who sinned against the clergy committed a greater sin than against all other people of this world. (36) Without a taint of inclination to clericalism, Francis' concern for the clerics was not due to their own merit but because their ministry concerned the Body and Blood of our Lord, the only source of our sanctification.
There are more examples of the governing nature of the Church in Francis' own writings. His concern for approval and accordance manifested the institutional function well:
I command the ministers through obedience to petition the Lord Pope for one of the cardinals of the holy Roman Church, who would be the governor, protector, and corrector of this fraternity (Second Rule 12:3-4).
No [candidate] should be accepted contrary to the form and the prescription of the holy Church (First Rule 2:12).
The brothers shall not preach in the diocese of any bishop when he has opposed their doing so (Second Rule 9:1). No brother should preach contrary to the form and regulations of the holy Church [...] (First Rule 17:la).
The clerical [brothers] shall celebrate the Divine Office according to the rite of the holy Roman Church (Second Rule 3:1).
Taking these three functions as a whole, the 'institutional' Church --rather than an institutionalistic Church -- for Francis was not an obstacle to faith but instead became an expression of faith in terms of an object of obedience, a source of identity and a motivation of missions. Seeing the Pope as the visible head of the church, Francis proclaimed in the rule: 'Brother Francis and whoever will be the head of this order promises obedience and reverence to the Lord Pope Innocent and to his successors (First Rule Prologue).'
Dulles recognises the strong sense of corporate identity resulting from the institutional model as an asset. (37) No wonder Francis stated in the letter to the faithful that 'we must also be Catholics'. (38) In explaining why he wrote a Testament in addition to the Rule, he said, 'so that we may observe in a more Catholic manner the Rule.' These two uses of the word "Catholic" include not just the three functions of being taught, sanctified and governed but also a sense of pride. Dulles recognises that 'the institutional model gives strong support to the missionary effort [...] to save [non-believers'] souls by bringing them into the institution.' (39) On the surface at least, Francis' great interest in sending friars to Muslim places to preach and to convert them seems to confirm his ecclesiological leaning, although his true motivation may have been more salvific than institutional.
Although Francis' ecclesiology may have been institutional, it does not follow that Francis himself was institutionalistic or that he was thereby clericalist, juridicist and triumphalistic. (40) This is proved by the fact that Francis never received the holy order of priesthood, as well as that he was more concerned with compassion than punishment (41) for brothers at fault. Moreover, his own ecclesiology was richer than the institutional model -- it was supplemented by other models, as described below.
30. Dulles, 34.
31. Dulles, 37.
32. Dulles, 37.
33. First Rule 19:1, 2.
34. Second Rule 2:2
35. Second Letter to the Faithful 33 and 35
36. Admontion 26 : 3-4
37. Dulles, 42
38. Second Letter TO THE Faithful 32.
39. Dulles, 42.
40. Three criticisms of the institutional Church by Emile de Smedt, quoted in Dulles, 39.
41. This will be elaborated later.
The Church as People of God
The People of God model is straightforward, realistic and practical. With a strong Biblical base and a concrete image, this model expresses the organicity of the human aspect. Vatican II theology has restored this model to its proper place: we may note the precedence of The chapter title 'People of God' before "The Hierarchical Structure of the Church'. For St Francis, the Church as People of God possibly was not an ecclesiology per se but a reality. In the last chapter of the First Rule, Francis invited ('begged') the whole Church (and beyond) to give God thanks. (42) Mico analysed this as essentially a 'universal vision' of The People of God, corresponding to the two parts of the triumphant church in heaven and the pilgrim church in via. (43) This glorious church in heaven is referred to by Francis in a quasi-litany of saints:
the glorious Mother, Blessed Michael, Gabriel and Raphael, and all the blessed angels, saints, John the Evangelist, Peter, Paul, patriarchs, prophets, innocents, apostles, evangelists, disciples, martyrs, confessors, virgins, blessed Elijah and Henoch, saints past, present and future. (44)
After this comes a litany of the members of the pilgrim church on earth, which is similar to the one in Lumen genfium:
St Francis : First Rule 23:7ff Lumen gentium 41
(number indicating the order)
1. shepherds Of Christ's flock
Priests; 2. Priests
Deacons, 3. Deacons
Subdeacons, acolytes, exorcists, Lectors, porters, and all clerics 4. Clerics
All religious men and women,
All lay brothers and youth, the poor and the needy, 8 Those oppressed by poverty, infirmity, sickness or other hardship
Kings and princes,
Workers and farmers, servants, Labourers
And masters
All virgins and continent and married women, 6 Married couples and Christian parents, windows and single people,
All lay people, men, women, children, adolescents, the youth and the old 5 Laymen, the healthy and
The healthy and
The sick, 8 (those oppressed by poverty, infirmity, sickness or other hardships,)
All the small and the great
Under this 'pilgrim Church' (not a term Francis used), the litany includes a cosmic dimension that is definitely beyond an institutioal understanding:
all peoples, races, tribes, and tongues, all nations and all peoples everywhere on earth who are and who will be.
Such a vision supplements the ecclesiological model of the Church as People of God. Mice's analysis of this as 'universal vision' of the people of God aptly describes Francis' understanding of ecclesial catholicity.
Besides the poetic litany offered in the hymn of Thanksgiving, within the Franciscan tradition this 'People of God' view of the Church found its graphic imagery in the San Damiano crucifix, the one which asked Francis to rebuild God's house -- the Church. This Byzantine icon had many human figures (as well as angels) around Jesus in the centre. The graphic portrait has indeed two strong ecclesiological character, depicting the model of the Church as people of God: Jesus in the centre with the church triumphant of saints on the top and at the side of Jesus. The people at the side of Jesus acquire a more humanistic figure, more easily identified as 'pilgrims', although they are indeed saints. The smaller figures are 'sinners' who crucified Jesus. This may correspond to the axiom that the people of God model does not only include saints but also sinners, the weak, the rebellious and the anti-witness too. This vivid representation again can be connected with the breadth of the universal character of Francis' ecclesial view.
42. First Rule 23:7
43. Mico, J., The Spirituality of St Francis: Holy Mother Church. Greyfriars Review 8(1) (1994) 17.
44. First Rule 23:1-6 paraphrased, because Francis used many adjectives for the saints.
The Church as Body of Christ/ Sacrament/ Mystical Communion
The Church as Body of Christ is characteristically a conception of Pauline theology, with numerous Scriptural references. (45) It is a strong image of such essential features of the church as Christ being the head and the dependence of each member of the church on each other. The Church as Sacrament, on the other hand, is a relatively new concept. (46) The Church is the Sacrament of Christ in the same way that Christ is the Sacrament of God. By definition, a sacrament is more than a sign of grace; it is a full sign, meaning in it is the grace which it signifies. With this model, the goal of the church is made clear: 'to purify and intensify man's response to the grace of Christ.' (47) The Church as a mystical communion speaks about the other side of the institutional church - that the Church is a not just a Gemeinschaft (society) but also a Gesellschaft (community). Such a model emphasises the vertical dimension of 'divine life disclosed in the incarnate Christ and communicated to men through his Spirit' rather than the horizontal aspect of a secular community. (48)
Although these three models are used separately, they supplement each other. Of these three ecclesiological models, it is not apparent that St Francis subscribed to one in particular. Actually, one aspect of Francis' understanding of the Church refers to a combination of these models. The great Eucharistic devotion in Francis' spirituality can be a source for ecclesiological investigation in connection with these three models. "This is even more true with postconciliar ecclesiology. Before analysing his version, these three are treated separately.
Lumen gentium points out, with the model of the Church as mystical communion, that: 'Celebrating the Eucharistic sacrifice, therefore, we are most closely united to the worshipping Church in heaven [...].'(49) Bekes proposes that before the Church celebrates the Eucharist, it is the Eucharist that makes the Church. An examination of the origins of the Eucharist, particularly that of the Passover meal being constitutive of the ecclesial community, makes clear the two aspects of the essence of the Church. There is a vertical sense: divine communion through Christ in the Spirit with the Father, and a horizontal sense: human and ecclesial communion with all those who live in divine communion. (50) This thesis combines two models together: the vertical sense emphasises the sacramentality of the Church whereas the horizontal sense highlights the communion of the Church. Compared with Hamer's concept of vertical and horizontal dimensions of communion, (51) Bekes' thesis is more transcendent and integrates the mystery of the Church better, as the following diagram represents.
DIVINE COMMUNION DIVINE COMMUNION
Human
Communion
(Secular)
Human Communion of Those who Share the Same Divine Communion
COMMUNION MODEL EUCHARISTIC MODEL
No wonder the New Catechism states that "The Church is the People that God gathers in the whole world. She exists in local communities and is made real as a liturgical, above all a Eucharistic, assembly. (CCC 752)' This is just another interpretation of what is said in the Vatican II documents: 'Really sharing in the body of the Lord in the breaking of the Eucharistic bread, we are taken up into communion with him and with one another.' (52) This postconciliar ecclesiology centred on the Eucharist has the breadth of being integrative. Diagrammatically, one can draw:
Three separate ecclesiologies
Body Of Chritst Communion Sacrament
An inegrated ecclesiology
Eucharist = Communion + Sacrament
Such Eucharistic ecclesiology perhaps is paradigmatic as not only the communion and the sacrament models can be integrated, but also the models of Church as Body of Christ and as the community of disciples. For instance: "The divine and human communion is the theandric unity of Christ as brought about mystically in his body, which is the Church.' (53) "The community of disciples encounters Jesus under the symbolic forms as the crucified and risen Lord, and thus as the sacrifice that reconciles sinners to God.' (54)
Now with a Eucharistic understanding of what the Church is, everything which Francis has written about the Eucharist may suitably become ecclesiological. For instance, piety towards the Eucharist in reality reflects the sacramentality part of the vertical mystery: the presence of Christ in the Church through the Eucharist.
"Therefore, kissing your (brothers') feet and with all that love of which I am capable, I implore all of you brothers to show all possible reverence and honour to the most holy Body and Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ...
O admirable heights and sublime lowliness!
O sblime humility!
O humble sublimity!
That the Lord of the universe, God and the Son of God, so humbles Himself that for our salvation He hides Himself under the little form of bread. (55)
And the Lord gave me such faith in churches that I would simply pray and speak in this way: 'We adore you, Lord Jesus Christ, in all Your churches throughout the world, and we bless You, for through Your holy cross You have redeemed the world.' [...] I see nothing corporally of the Most High Son of God in this world except His Most holy Body and Blood... (56)
[See,] daily He comes down from the bosom of the Father upon the altar in the hands of the priest. [...] And in this way the Lord is always with His faithful, as He Himself says: "Behold I am with you even to the end of the world." (57)
Likewise the mystical communion ('horizontal' for Bekes but 'vertical' for Hamel), finds its expression in the fraternal ideal of St Francis for his brotherhood -- as well as for the Church, humankind and finally the whole creation. One particular actualisation -- more on the human relationship level -- is the concern for showing mercy and compassion in dealing with brothers who have sinned. Such clemency waseven written into the Rule -- not so much as a legal requirement but a form of life: If [...] there should be some brother who wishes to live according to the flesh and not according to the Spirit, the brothers with whom he is [living] should admonish, instruct and correct him humbly and diligently.' (58) Stretching the evangelical fraternity to a mystical communion level, Francis even asked of the Ministers, as Jesus asked of Peter on forgiveness: 'And if [the brother who has sinned and hasbeen forgiven] should sin thereafter a thousand times before your very eyes, love him more than me so that you may draw him back to the Lord.' (59)
"These quotes are not simply indicative of a medieval Eucharistic piety or a radical evangelical movement. They are representative of a sense of:
the sacramental presence of Christ in the mystery of the Church in a vertical direction; and,
agape within a fellowship in a horizontal direction. These are the two aspects of a Franciscan ecclesiology of Eucharist. As Bekes observed, the two are linked: 'the very mystery of divine redemption is made sacramentally present and constantly accomplished within the Christian community.' (60)
45. I Cor6:12-20; 10:14-22; 12-4:31; .Col l:3ff;Eph 1:10,21-23,5:25-26.
46. Theologians such as Henri de Lubac, Karl Rahner, E Schillebeeckx and Yves Congar as well as the Vatican II Council Fathers employed such a concept. See Dulles, 63ff.
47. Dulles, 73
48. Dulles, 49-50
49. LG 50
50. Bekes, G.J., The Eucharist makes the Church: the Ecclesial Dimension of the Sacrament. In Latourelle, R. (ed.), Vatican II: Assessment and Perspectives (New York: Paulist 1989) 356-363.
51. Quoted in Dulles, 49-50.
52. LG 7.
53. Bekes, 356
54. Duties, 216.
55. Letter to the Entire Order 12 and 27.
56. Testament 4-5, 10.
57. Admonition 1:18, 22
58. First Rule 5:5
59. Letter to a minister 11.
60. Bekes, 356
The Church as Herald
In this model, the Word of God is held central. The act of proclamation, in addition to the profession, of the word to the whole world characterises the mission of the Church. (61) Francis always had high regard for the word: 'Let us hold onto the words, the life, and the teaching and the Holy Gospel of Him.' (62) in the time of great Eucharistic devotion during the Middle Ages, Francis revolutionarily reemphasised the importance of the Word. Unlike the original version of this model, which is undoubtedly very Protestant in placing the word over the sacrament, (63) Francis highlights the dual importance of both. There is a strong kerygmatic element in the Franciscan movement. Religious before his time were almost uniformly monastic, both coenobitic and eremetic; the Franciscan movement, not unlike some other Gospel movements of the time, stressed preaching. The difference was that Francis and his brothers remained in the Church.
For Francis, his heraldic ecclesiology positively complemented the institution mentality: Francis himself went to preach to the Muslims and he was open for his brothers to do likewise. (64) On preaching to the Saracens, i.e. the Muslims, Francis said, there were two ways to live among the non-believers. Besides not being engaged in arguments or disputes but acknowledging that they are Christians, 'another way is to proclaim the word of God when they see that it pleases the Lord, so that they believe in [...] God [...] and that they be baptised and become Christians.' (65) The concern for proclaiming is heraldic and the consideration for having converts baptised and becoming Christians shows signs of an institutional Church model. This is echoed in the twentieth century presentation of the herald model: the intention of the preacher is not to improve the world, but to summon it to belief in Jesus Christ and to bear witness to the reconciliation which has been accomplished through Him and His dominion. (66) Indeed, as Francis wrote, 'Blessed is that religious who takes no pleasure and joy except in the most holy words and deeds of the Lord, and with these leads people to the love of God in joy and gladness.' (67) This admonition of Francis for the individual friar can be applied on a corporate level to the entire community, the Church. Thus the word, which includes the recording of the deeds, being so central for this ecclesial community is a reflection of the heraldic ecclesiology. As shown earlier, Francis' respect for the clergy, because of their tie with the sacrament, reflects the institutional ecclesiology. A similar case for the heraldic ecclesiology is manifested in his concern for honouring and respecting 'all theologians and those who minister the most holy divine words as those minister spirit and life to us.' (68)
Yet he nevertheless recognised the profundity of the word. This was demonstrated in the following remarks:
Those religious who do not wish to follow the spirit of Sacred Scripture, but only wish to know [what] the words [are] and [how to] interpret them to others are killed by the letter. (69)
All brothers should preach by their deeds. (70)
Although this awareness originally works on an individual level of admonition, it indeed enriches the heraldic ecclesiology by pointing out that the proclamation is not an absolute end. This insight substantiates a missiological concern: following what one preaches and preaching by one's deeds are no less important than the act and content of the proclamation; the proclaimer on his own is a personified sermon.
61. Richard McBrien, quoted in Dulles, 76.
62. First Rule 22:41.
63. Dulles, 76.
64. Second Rule 12.
65. First Rule 5:6-7
66. Dulles, 94.
67. Admonition 20.
68. Teastament 13.
69. Admonition 7:3, word order changed to bring out the meaning better.
70. First Rule 17:3
The Church as Servant
In this model the Church is seen to be bounded by a 'sense of brotherhood that springs up among those who join in Christian service towards the world.' (71) This is related to two New Testament concepts: κοινωνια (brotherhood "(72) /fellowship) and διακονια (service). This model, by its very name 'servant', bears three unfortunate ambiguities, namely the implication of working under orders, or the work itself being demeaning, or serving to the good of others. (73) Nevertheless, three useful aspects can concurrently be made clear: for the service of God, out of love and to 'wash each other's feet' (meaning humility and commitment within aκοινωνια). (74)
This model, as an ecclesiological one, has an indirect reference in the Scriptures, namely the Songs of the Suffering Servant in Isaiah. (75) Franciscan sources, although not concerning the Church explicitly, can greatly supplement the understanding of the servant Church by elevating the individual servanthood to a collective servanthood of the Church. In particular, one important set of Francis' writings is the Admonitions and almost two thirds of these are known as 'Servant of God Admonitions'. These 'beatitudes', originally meant to be 'criteria of a true friar', (76) can also enrich the many aspects of the servant Church ecclesiology.
For instance, on the issue of ministry within the order, Francis himself writes: 'Those who are placed over others should glory in such an office only as much as they world were they assigned the task of washing the feet of the brothers.' "(77) 'And let the ministers and servants remember what the Lord says: I have not come to be served, but to serve.' (78) This can be applicable to the ministry of the Church, particularly regarding the hierarchy, which requires an attitude of humility.
The instrumentality and theocentricity as servant of God are brought out by another Admonition: It is a great shame for us, servants of God, that [...] we wish to receive glory and honour by recounting our deeds.' (79)
The servant image in Francis' Servant of God Admonitions can complement many other ecclesiological aspects:
The Church as a humble servant
The humble servant may be an image of a humble servant Church:
'A servant of God may be recognised as possessing the Spirit of the Lord [.,.] if the flesh does not pride itself when the Lord performs some good through him [...]' (80)
'Blessed is that servant who does not pride himself on the good that the Lord says or does through him any more than on what He says or does through another.' (81)
Such an understanding is an important complement to a victorious Church triumphant and brings out the minority image of a contrast society.
Love in a communion
Francis wrote:
Blessed is the servant who would love his brother as much when he is sick and cannot repay him as he would when he is well and can repay him; (82) [and] who would love and respect his brother as much when he is far from him as he would when he is with him, (83)
This can be related to the importance of fellowship-love in a mystical communion of the Church. On a personal level, each member of the Church - as a servant - must bear his brothers. On a corporate level, the Church herself as a servant must bear all humanity, or even the entire creation, as a brother when it is sick and do this with love and respect. This is an important notion for how the Church relates to the world.
Patience during suffering
the circumstance of suffering and the attitude of patience are relevant for the Church, especially in time of trials and persecution. Francis wrote:
But when the time comes in which those who should do him justice do quite the opposite to him, he has only as much patience and humility as he has on that occasion and no more. (84)
The true peacemakers are those who preserve peace of mind and body for love of our Lord Jesus Christ, despite what they suffer in this world. (85)
By sharing suffering, the church participates in the paschal mystery of Christ and thereby Christ continues to be present in the Church. This aspect balances a triumphant image of the Church.
Penance for sins
A strong theme in Franciscan spirituality was the concern for doing penance, as seen by the early name for the friars, the "Penitents from Assisi". This theme was carried out too in the Servant Admonitions:
He is the faithful and prudent servant who for all his offences does not delay in punishing himself, inwardly through contrition and outwardly through confession and penance for what he did. (86)
Blessed is the servant who would accept correction, accusation and blame from another as patiently as he would from himself. (87)
Therefore, blessed is that servant who having such an enemy in his power, will always hold him captive and wisely guard himself against him, because as long as he does this, no other enemy, seen or unseen, will be able to harmhim. (88)
This is indeed an important complement to an integral ecclesiology. The Church is at the same time sinful and sanctifying. With such stress on the servant as a penitent, one can appreciate the need of the servant Church -- not just the individual members -- to accept its own vulnerability to make mistakes and the need to convert continuously.
Word in the herald image
The servant is at the service of the word. Francis borrowed and applied the beautiful imagery of Our Lady to the servant:
Blessed is the servant who keeps the secrets of the Lord in his heart. (89)
The Church should take this as an example of keeping the word. Furthermore, this servant cannot be careless with his own speaking because his true nature should be heraldic in proclaiming the Word of God:
Blessed is the servant who [...] is not quick to speak but wisely weighs what he should say and should reply. From such an exposition of these sources, a Franciscan ecclesiology of the servant Church does not dwell too much on the kind of service but on the substance of service, namely the theocentricity, the humility, the communion aspect, the suffering, the penance and the relation concerning the word.
71. Dulles, 97.
72. The Brotherhood finds its radical and concrete expression in religious life. Nowonder the Francisicans -- and other mendicant religious, such as Dominicans -- are known as friars, meaning brothers.
73. Dulles, 99.
74. Dulles, 99.
75. Indirect because the songs point to Christ, and the Church is onky a continuation of His presence.
76. Armstorg, 31, footnote
77. Admonition 4:2
78. First Rule 4:6
79. Admonition 6:3
80. Admonition 12:1-2
81. Admonition 17:1
82. Admonition 24.
83. Admonition 25.
84. Admonition 13:2
85. Admonition 15:2
86. Admonition 23:2
87. Admonition 22:1
88. Admonition 10:3
89. Admonition 28.
Our Lady as a Model of the Church
The Vatican II Constitution on the Church devotes an entire chapter to Our Lady to show the Marian dimension of ecclesiology. This is in accordance with the Patristic tradition: 'As St Ambrose taught, the Mother of God is a model of the Church in the matter of faith, charity and perfect union with Christ.' (90) St Francis has a profound understanding of Our Lady in relation to the Church )) in her relationship with the Trinity, the significance of the mystery of incarnation and the realisation as a family.
In the Antiphon for the Office of Passion (Francis' own writing), in Lumen gentium, as well as in the postconciliar catechism, a triad of Marian images is made with an ecclesiological mind:
Lumen gentium
52 on Our Lady
CCC 796 on the Church St. Francis' Antiphon of the Office of Passion
God Of The Father 2. Favourite daughter of the Father 1. [People of God] 1. The daughter and the servant of the most high and supreme King and Father of heaven
God the Son 1. Mother of the Son Of God 2. Body Of Christ --Son Of Christ 2. The Mother of our most holy Lord Jesus Christ
God Of The Holy Spirit 3. Temple of the Holy Spirit 3. Temple Of The Holy Spirit 3. The Spouse of the Holy Spirit
This matrix tabulates the various Trinitarian visions of the Marian model of the Church. For Francis, the Church is portrayed with the images of Our Lady as daughter, servant (ancilla), (91) mother and spouse. All these images are illuminative for grasping an aspect of the mystery of the church. For instance, the ancilla aspect definitely relates to the servant model but at the same time adds a feminine dimension as well as a Marian element.
With such a litany of familial relationships, one immediate consequence of this Marian ecclesiology is a family vision of the Churcli. In Francis' conception, all the faithful are children of the heavenly Father, and more specifically,
when faithful souls are joined to our Lord Jesus Christ by the Holy Spirit, they become spouses of Christ;
when they do the will of Christ, they become brothers to Him;
when we carry Him in our heart and body through divine love and a pure and sincere conscience and when we give birth to Him through holy manner of working, we become mothers of Christ. (92)
It is interesting to note that in this version the family vision has a definite Christocentric focus. Although Francis was not consistent in deciding if the Church is the spouse of Christ or of the Holy Spirit, it is certain that he regards the entire community of faith as a spiritual family. This is made more clear for the friars: 'Let the brothers give witness that they are members of one family.' (93) On a collective level, the Church is indeed a household (familia) of God in the Spirit, as Lumen gentium points out.
Another important Marian devotion of St Francis is expressed in the Salutation to the Blessed Virgin Mary which bears a definite ecclesiological element:
Ave Domina, sancta Regina, sancta Dei genetrix Maria, quae es virgo ecclesia facta...
(Hail, 0 Lady, holy Queen, Mary,, holy Mother of God; you are the virgin made Church...). (94)
The ecclesiological significance of this prayer cannot be overemphasised. Mico analysed that this meant Mary's dignity as an anticipatory image of the Church because Our Lady was at God's disposal so that the Son of God could take flesh in her womb. (95)
At the centre of this salutatory prayer is a climax of six Aves: Ave palatium eius, ave tabernaculum eius, ave domus eius, ave vestimentum eius, ave ancilla eius, ave mater eius. (Hail, His Palace; Hail, His Tabernacle; Hail, His Home; Hail, His Robe; Hail, His Servant; Hail, His Mother.) (96) The first four of these titles refer to the mystery of the incarnation and Our Lady's role in co-operating with God to make it possible. This can be said to be dignity of the Church -- 'the place where humanity meets the Trinue God'. (97) The first two Aves, palace and tabernacle, relate to both dimensions of being triumphant and being pilgrim. The home and the robe concern both an interpersonal and a personal dimension of God among and with humanity. All four of these conform to the Vatican II appreciation of the solidarity of Godwith humankind: "The Spirit dwells in the Church and in the hearts of the faithful, as in a temple (in templo habitat).' (98) Needless to say, the servant and the mother images refer to a horizontal mystical communion model, contrasting with the first four images, which refer to the vertical sacramental model.
Although the Church is a dwelling place which God has prepared for humankind, it is also the place where humankind prepares to meet God. As we have seen earlier in the Eucharistic ecclesiology the Eucharist makes the Church when the Church celebrates the Eucharist. Francis wrote: 'And let us make a home and dwelling place for Him who is the Lord God Almighty, Father and Son and Holy Spirit.' (99) The Church's loving acceptance of the indwelling of the Three Divine Persons is what makes it the true temple of the Trinity, the place where it is possible to live out the saving mystery of God.' (100) In short, a Franciscan-Marian ecclesiology is integrative. Using Our Lady as a focus, various models can be interlinked.
90. LG 63.
91. Latin version of the Antiphon in Esser, C. (ed.), Opuscula Sancti Patris Francisci Assisiensis (Rome: Collegii S Bonaventurae ad Claras Aquas 1978).
92. Firast Letter to the Faithful 7.
93. Second Rule 6:7
94. Salutation to the Blessed Virgin Mary (SBV)
95. Mico,15.
96. SBV. Latin version in Esser.
97. Mico, 15.
98. LG 4.
99. First Rule 22:27
100. Mico, 16.
The Church as Lady Poverty
Francis did not write about Lady Poverty in connection with the Church. Yet with the fruits of postconciliar ecclesiology as described above, this favourite theme in the Franciscan tradition can be used as an image, if not a model, of the Church. The term Lady Poverty (Domina paupertas) did not appear often in Francis' writings. It is found in the Salutations of the Virtues: 'Hail, Queen Wisdom [...], Lady holy Poverty.' (101) Elsewhere this Lady Poverty only appears in other sources, namely the biographies and pious stories. Francis 'panted with all his heart after Lady Poverty.' (102) Its direct link to the preferential option for the poor is a strength of this image. The option for the poor -- not just Francis' -- is 'derived from an earlier option: the option for Jesus Christ, Lord of History.'(103) These are the two dimensions of Francis' same commitment. A discussion of Franciscan poverty is beyond the scope of this paper but it is enough to note that Francis opts for neither a material poverty nor a spiritual poverty but a synthesis of the two -- an evangelical poverty. (104)
On a mural in the St Francis Basilica in Assisi, Francis is portrayed as being married to the Lady Poverty by Christ. If Francis -- the alter Christus -- is espoused to her. Lady Poverty must also represent to some extent the Church, just as the Church in the Bride of Christ. (105) A closer examination of the idea of Lady Poverty can enhance a Franciscan ecclesiology. Although Francis did not write further on Lady Poverty, one pious story stands out as a source: Sacrum Commercium (The Love Story) between Francis and the Lady Poverty. Although it was not written by Francis himself and is not a historical account, the story captures the essential spirit of Franciscan poverty. Throughout the story, various passages about Lady Poverty can be extrapolated to become ecclesiological, although the original intent of the author may have only been to personify a highly regarded virtue.
Bride of Christ
At one point, Lady Poverty is addressed as 'a most faithful spouse, a most tender lover of Christ.' (106) Further, the story recalls how Christ himself led a life of poverty: 'while he was in the world he clung to [Lady Poverty] alone and proved that [she was] completely faithful in all things.' (107)
Sacrament of Christ -- Mystery of Incarnation
That the Lady prepared in the human person a place and a dwelling of God (108) could refer to the sacramentality of the Church. This ecclesiological quality of sacramentality is made obvious when the Marian dimension is brought forward again in the story: the Lady Poverty 'prepared a place that would be satisfactory to [Christ], a throne upon which he would sit and a dwelling in which he would rest, namely, the most poor virgin.' (109)
Church as Servant -- Church as Herald -- Church as Contrast Society
The Lady spoke with Francis in the story and her speech contained a reference to the Suffering Servant, which is already used as a model of the Church: '[I am] a poor little one, tossed with tempest, without all comfort.' (110) And then, on a kerygmatic note, 'When [Jesus] chose certain necessary witnesses of his preaching, [,.,] he chose [...] poor fishermen. ' (111) ' If the Church is meant to continue the presence of Christ, certainly the Lady Poverty is an image qualified to supplement the heraldic model. When Lady Poverty is described as hated bitterly by the sons of Adam, (112) this points to a contrast society image of the Church being distinct from the world.
Church as Body of Christ
Further in the story of Lady Poverty, the poverty of Christ is highlighted in connection with the Body: 'when [Christ] hung there naked, his arms outstretched, his hands and feet pierced, [Lady Poverty] suffered with him, so that nothing in him should appear more glorious than [she].' '(113) The body imagery here - made strong by the stark nakedness and the emphasis on the arms, hands and feet - can supplement the doctrine of the Body of Christ as the Church -- and this Body includes the dimension of poverty.
Church as Eucharistic Community and as Community of Salvation
The story of Lady Poverty ends with 'when everything was ready, the brothers constrained Lady Poverty to eat with them.' ' (114) The banquet is a very beautiful Eucharistic image because it signifies convivium -- as in Thomas' hymn to the Eucharist (115) -- eating the agape meal, sharing of the life-giving bread and the cup of salvation. Further, Lady Poverty is said to have been given the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven. ' (116) In this way, the Church is a community of salvific grace.
The benefits of this image of Lady Poverty are numerous. One obvious positive use of this image is the emphasis that the Church has to be a church of the poor. According to liberation theology, the poor are 'sacrament of God'. (117) There is a strong evangelical root: Jesus affirms that if one does a work of charity to the least of the brothers it is done to himself. The relationship is that of immediacy, not intermediary:
The poor are the sacrament of Jesus: the manifestation and communication of this mystery, the setting for his revelation and dwelling. [...] In the poor, God is met precisely in poverty. This sacrament of the poor [...] remains the only sacrament necessary for salvation. The way to God goes necessarily, for everyone without exception, through human beings -- human beings in need [...]. (118)
In this image, because the Church of the poor is emphasised, a deep reflection on the Church as Lady Poverty is bound to lead to a constant renewal of institutional structures and questioning of the Church-world relationship. Therefore, this image successfully relates to two of the ecclesiological issues listed as belonging to postconciliar theology. (119)
There are also weaknesses with this model. For instance, in the story the Lady Poverty is portrayed as standing on the summit of a mountain, (120) which gives a false impression of being inaccessible. Secondly, this image has a definite Franciscan ring which is not helpful outside the movement. Nevertheless, at least this can serve as an example of drawing upon alternative sources for doing theology.
101. There is a Marian dimension. Some manuscripts call this piece 'The Virtues possessed by the holy Virgin'. See notes quoted in Armstrong.
102. 2 Celano 55 (This version is a translation by Bodo).
103. Boff, C. and Pixley, G., The Bible, the Church and the Poor (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis 1989)115.
104. This differentiation of poverty is found in Chapter 7 in Boff and Pixley, 139-158. The attribution to Francis of doing so is mine. 'Christian poverty is not just an ideal for individuals, the community and the Church; it is also an ideal for humankind and for a society that seeks to operate on the level of human beings and their mystery.' Boff, 156.
105. Borrowing an image first used by Irenaeus in Adv. haer., LG 4 states that 'Constantly [Christ] renews [the Church] and leads her to perfect union with her Spouse.'
106. Sacrum Commercium 20. In Habig. Subsequent references to Sacrum Commercium are also from this version.
107. Sacrum Commercium 19.
108. Sacrum Commercium 1.
109. Sacrum Commercium 19.
110. Sacrum Commercium 15.
111. Sacrum Commercium 20.
112. Sacrum Commercium 5.
113. Sacrum Commercium 21.
114. Sacrum Commercium 59.
115. O Sacrum convivium, in quo Chrislus sumilur. recolitur memoria passionis ejus.mens impleturgralia etfuturaegloriaepignus nobis datur.
116. Sacrum Commercium 4.
117. BoffandPixley,114.
118. BoffandPixley,113-114.
119. Eight issues are listed in Anton, 407.
120. Sacrum Commercium 14.
Conclusion
This paper has attempted to prove that it is possible to construct a single Franciscan ecclesiology. It has looked at the different models of the Church from Franciscan perspectives. This is possible because the Franciscan movement is an expression of the Church, and shares the same ecclesial constitutive elements. The Franciscan sources can enrich the appreciation of the various models of the Church. Directly, St Francis did see the Church in an institution model, a people of God model as well as a Marian model. These three models were classic theological themes and Francis' direct use of these was natural.
Indirectly, the postconciliar models -- the Eucharistic, herald and servant -- can be approached too through the writings of Francis. Finally, the image of Lady Poverty is suggested as an alternative model to bring out the Church of the poor in particular. No wonder the whole Church, not just the Franciscans, could and should sing the antiphon -- Franciscus vir catholicus et lotus apostolicus -- wholeheartedly: not simply to celebrate this medieval saint but to celebrate the mystery of the Church, as Francis saw it and lived it out so deeply and so well.