神学年刊
作者:若干作者
第十四卷 (1992-93年)
藉误解至悟解 咏十九诠释 后现代和新编教理 使命神学的二路
圣奥斯定「忏悔录」的生命哲学 德日进神父的进化论与神观 编写《创世论》神学教材的背后 CATHOLIC CRITICAL EXEGESIS
THE DIGNITY OF THE HUMAN PERSON IN AFRICAN BELIEF Why and How I Wrote The Theology of Creation    
第十四卷 (1992-93年) 藉误解至悟解
作者:高夏芳

藉误解至悟解

谈一种若望福音中耶稣的沟通方式




前言

在近代释经研究中,愈来愈多学者强调圣经不单是「文以载道」的经典,盛载及传递主之圣言,也是「文以言志」及「文以缘情」的文学巨着,有意境深远的美感(1),有触动心弦的震憾力。特别在四福音中有开耶稣之言的记录,学者们除了发掘耶稣表达的内容及讯息外,更将注意力推广至分析他的说话方式。耶稣「说什么」和他「怎样说」;他的「何言」及「如何言」是分不开的。当然,他的交谈对象,及他的言词如何在初期教会中被保存,被视为生活指标,被传递,被记录,被编订成文等等都是不可忽略的重要因素。

早在今世纪初,类型批判学者已将耶稣之言按其文学类别分为先知型,智慧型,比喻型,自我显露型,召唤型等,从而仔细审查这些资料由出自耶稣之口至书自圣史之笔的演变过程(2)。这种纵切式的历史批判性分析(diachronic analysis) 有其不可取代的意义,但却可以无形中把历史资料分解得支离破碎,削弱福音的文气,遮尽它波澜起伏的节奏感,淡化它的魅力。需要一种横切式的分析(synchronic analysis) 来与之相辅相成,把经过最后修订的现有福音视为一贯性的文学整体,有其骨干及脉络,有其气势及境界,有其情节及韵律,有其叙事原则及格调(3)。

本文欲从这横面的角度去读耶稣之言。在四圣史笔下,耶稣在与人交谈时不乏沟通技巧,他的达意方式繁多:有时利用比喻或象征(4),有时发出问题,催使对方深入反省,采取立埸或作决定(5),有时一针见血地作判断(6),或直截了当地道出他向对方的要求(7),有时迂回曲折,戏剧性地一步步引领对方到达目的(8)。其中一种相当独特的方法是运用双关语或意义隐晦的说话,沟通线路的两端处于两个不同层面,与耶稣交谈者首先误解其意,但福音读者却因此误解面对耶稣说话的内容有更深的了解,因而生妙悟之效。这种现象在若望福音中出现得最频(9),本文就以此为反省对象。

1. 资料概观

兹将有关耶稣被其谈话对象误解的各片段按若望福音的架构及叙事次序列举出来(10):

1.1 「标记之书」:1:19-12:50

* 2:19-22: 犹太人误解耶稣有关「拆毁圣殿,三天内把它重建」之言。

* 3:3-5: 尼苛德摩误解「重生」之意。

* 4:10-15: 撒玛黎雅妇人误解「活水」的真缔。

* 4:31-34: 门徒们误解「耶稣已有食物吃」的深层意义。

* 6:32-60:
犹太人三番四次误解耶稣有关「永生之粮」的言论及他的「从天降下」。
* 7:33-36:
犹太人误解耶稣要「回到派遣他者那里」的意思。
* 8:31-33:
犹太人误解何谓「获得自由」。
* 8:51-53:
犹太人误解耶稣所说:「谁遵行我的话,永远见不到死亡」。
* 8:56-58:
犹太人误解「耶稣的日子」的含义。耶稣说,亚巴郎曾欣喜地期望这日子,他看到了,极其高兴。
* 11:6-16:
门徒们误解「拉匝禄睡着了」之意。
* 11:17-24:
玛尔大误解耶稣有关拉匝禄必定复活的许诺。
* 12:30-36:
犹太人误解耶稣要「从地上被举起」有何意义。

1.2 「光荣之书」:13:1-20:31

* 13:1-11: 伯多禄误解耶稣为何给门徒洗脚。

* 13:27-29: 门徒们误解耶稣对出卖他的犹达斯所说:「你要做的,快去做吧」。

* 13:36-38: 伯多禄误解何谓跟耶稣去他要去的地方。

* 14:1-5: 多默不明「耶稣要去的地方」及「往那里的路」指的是什么。
* 14:6-11: 斐理伯不明谁看见耶稣,就看见父。
* 14:18-24: 犹达斯(不是那个依斯加略人) 不明耶稣「把自己显示给爱他的人」究竟是什么一回事。
* 16:16-24: 门徒们不明耶稣所说:「我不再用比喻对你们说话,而要明明地向你们传报有关父的一切」。
* 18:28-19:16: 耶稣在比拉多前受审时比拉多屡次误解耶稣,不明他的君王身份,他的王国的性质,他如何为真理作证,他到底是从那里来的。

除了这些比较明显的片段外,在福音的首及尾还有其他含有误解意味的地方。开始时耶路撒冷首长对若翰的身份及其施洗的用意模糊不清(1:19-28);在耶稣召叫首批门徒的叙述中纳塔乃耳听到谈及耶稣时的第一反应是迷惘不解(1:45-50);在加纳婚宴中耶稣对母亲的回答也反影出他们的观点之间有一段距离(2:4),而婚宴司席对好酒的来源及其最后出现不得其解(2:9-10)。在复活叙述中玛利亚在墓穴前误认耶稣为园丁(20:15),多默也要纠正自己对「信」的观念(20:27-29)。

还有,在福音的前后半部转捩处误解的气氛也很浓。耶稣讲完了善牧的比喻后,门徒们「却不明白给他们所讲的是什么」(10:6),在伯达尼晚宴时,玛利亚用香液敷抹耶稣,犹达斯只看到香液的金钱价值,对耶稣受敷的意义却全瞎了眼睛(12:1-8)。耶稣骑着驴驹进入圣城时「门徒们起初也没有明白这些事」及这一切与耶稣的默西亚尊威的关系(12:12-16)。当耶稣向群众作最后讲词时,有声音来自天上,群众对这声音无的放矢地乱作解释(12:29)。

这种误解现象的频密出现已引起了学者们的注意。除了不少若望福音诠释对此问题略有提及外,也有学者以此为专题研究;如较早期的R.PFARRER(11),O.CULLMANN(12),较近期的H.LEROY(13),D.A.CARSON(14),G.IACOPINO(15) 等。这些学者,尤其是近期的数位,大都从圣史若望的团体实况出发,去理解为何若望笔下的耶稣要采用这独特的沟通方法。这种Sitz im Leben的探讨自有其无可否认的价值;本文的研究角度却较简单,欲把历史批判性的问题搁下,只从实在的福音叙述入手,去分折耶稣被误解的现象,并提出类似以下的问题:是谁误解耶稣?从各种误解的性质及内容可否发掘出一个或数个问题核心?从误解至了解耶稣的路程是怎样的?误解耶稣者缺少了什么?是条件不足?是时机未到?是两端的距离太远?

1. 圣经与美学,圣经与文学,圣经与艺术等主题为最近十数年的圣经研究开创新的领域。有关这些主题参阅:FRYE N., The Great Code. The Bible and Literature / New York 1982 ; AA. VV. Art and Meaning : Rhetoric in biblical Literature, Sheffield 1982 ; ALTER R., The Art of biblical literature in "Journal for the Studies of the Old Testament" 27 (1983) 75-117 ; STENDHAL K., The Bible as a classic and the Bible as Holy Scripture, JBL 103 (1984) 3-10 ; RAVASI G., Bibbia e arte in Nuovo Dizionario di Teologia biblica, Roma 1989.

2. 参阅:DIBELIUS M., Die Formgeschichte des Evangeliums, Tubingen 1919 ; BULTMANN R., Die Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition, Gottingen 1921.

3. 这种横面的或同时式的释经方法(diachronic analysis) 从近代的语言学(Linguistics) 意义学(Semiotics),结构分析(structural analysis),叙述文体研究(Interpretation of Narrative) 等得到不少启发及支援,参阅:ALTER R., The Art of Biblical Narrative, New York 1981 ; RIVA F., L' esegesi narrative : dimensioni ermeneutiche, RivBiblIt XXXVII (1989) 129-160 ; FOSSION A., Lire les Ecritures. Theories et pratique de la lecture structurale, Bruxelles 1980 ; SAVOCA G., Iniziazione all’analisi biblica strutturalista, Messina 1989 ; EGGER W., Methodenlehre zum Neuen Testament. Einfuhrung in linquistische und historisch-kristische Methoden, Freiburg 1987.

4. 田野的花草(玛6:30),空中的飞鸟(玛6:26),太阳和雨露(玛5:45) 云和风(路12:54-55),蛀虫和金秀

5. 如「你要我为你做什么?」(谷10:5);「你们说我是谁?」(谷8:29),「你为什么称我为善?」(谷10:18) 按NOSENGO G., L' arte educativa di Gesu Maestro. Saggi di commenti pedagogici alla condotta educativa di Gesu Roma 1967,在四福音中共有126个耶稣的发问,按NAVONE J., Il mistero di Dio interpella l’uomo, in "La ivilta Cattolica" 142 (1991), 23-32,在三本对观福音中共有110个。

6. 如「你们要死在你们的罪恶中」(若8:24)「如果你们不各自从心里宽恕自己的弟兄,我的天父也要这样对待你们」(玛18:35)。

7. 如:「来跟随我!我要使你们成为渔人的渔夫」(谷1:17);「匝凯,你快下来!因为幺今天必须住在你家中」(跆19:5)

8. 如:与撒玛黎雅妇人对话(4:1-42),治好瞎子(9:1-41),在比拉多前受审(18:28-19:16) 等片段。

9. 这误解现象其他福音也偶有记载。如谷8:15:当耶稣吩咐门徒们提防法利塞人和黑落德的酵母时,他们却彼此议论,担心他们的饼短缺了。又如路9:45-46:耶稣第二次预言他的苦鸡,门徒们不明他所说,反而暗中思量,他们中谁是最大的。

10. 有关若望福音的架构分析,学者们虽有不同的建议,但大致上都在十二与十三章之间看出一道分水岭。参阅:VAN DEN BUSSCHE H., Jean, BRUGES 1967 ; DEEKS D., The Structure of the Fourth Gospel, NTS 15 (1968 / 69) 107-129 ; SEGALLA G., Giovanni, Roma 1976 ; LEON DUFOUR X., Lecture de l’ evangile selon Jean, I, Paris 1988。 把1-12称为「标记之书」,13-20「光荣之书」或「苦难之书」的主要有以下两位作者:DODD C. H The Interpretation of the Four Gospel, London 1958 ; BROWN R.E., The Gospel according to John, I, New York 1966.

11. PFARRER. R., Dan Missverstandnis im Johannesevangeliums, in "Neue Kirchliche Zeitschrift" III (1921) 351-361.

12. CULLMANN O., Der johanneische Gebrauch doppeldeutiger Ausdrucke als Schlussel zum Verstandnis des Vierten Evangeliums, TZB IV (1948) 360-372.

13. LEROY H., Ratsel und Missverstandnis : Ein Beitrag zur Formgeschichte des Johannesevangeliums, Bonn 1966.

14. CARSON D.A., Understanding Misunderstanding in the Fourth Gospel, TyndB XXXIII (1982) 59-91.

15. IACOPINO G., Iesus incomprehensus. Gesu frainteso nell’ Evangelo di Giovanni, RivBiblIt XXXVI (1988) 165-197.

2. 不同类型的误解者

误解耶稣者包括的范围广阔,从耶稣的敌人至他最亲近的朋友,从犹太首长至市井妇人。有时是群体误解:犹太群众,门徒们;有时是个人:撒玛黎雅妇人,尼苛德摩,玛尔大,比拉多,或个别门徒如伯多禄,多默,斐理伯,犹达斯等。可见耶稣这种独特的沟通方法运用于不同的对话者。

2.1 犹太群众

最易误解耶稣,而误解程度最深,离真理与耶稣真意最远的是犹太群众。犹太人误解耶稣的现象密布在福音的前半部,尤其第七、八章全是由一连串的误解构成。

「犹太人」在若望福音中有特别的含义(16)。若望多次把这名词神学化,用它来统称那些拒绝耶稣,不信他,与他敌对者。他们不认识也不爱天主(8:55;5:42),所以也不接受天主派遣来世界者。他们只顾寻求自己的光荣,而把天主的光荣置诸道外(5:44)。他们对耶稣窃窃私议(6:41),迫害他(5:16),设法逮捕他(7:30),说他发疯(10:20),指控他是撒玛黎雅人,并附有魔鬼(8:48)。他们图谋杀害他(7:1),向他掷石(8:59;10:31),并严厉阻止别人跟随他(7:13;9:22)。

这些犹太人根本没有了解耶稣的条件,在聆听耶稣时,误解,曲解,不解,实属必然;而耶稣也不枉费心思去开解他们的执迷不悟。他对他们的回应屡次是判断式的,直捣核心地道出他们的不是。「我认得你们,知道在你们内没有天主的爱情」(5:41-42); 「你们要死于你们的罪恶中」(8:24);「你们容纳不下我的话」(8:37);「为什么你们不明白我的讲论呢?无非是你们不肯听从我的话」(8:43);「你们是出于你们的父亲魔鬼,并愿意跟随你们父亲的欲望」(8:44);「你们不听天主的话,因为你们不是出于天主」(8:47)。有时耶稣用反调的方式质问他们:「你们就这样对我发怒吗?」(7:23);「我作了一件事,你们就奇怪吗?」(7:21);「你们中谁能指证我有罪?若是我说真理,为什么你们却不信我呢?」(8:46)。多次耶稣说完了他斩钉截铁的判语后,便毅然隐退,不再把无结果的辩论拖长(12:36;8:59)。

犹太人的误解耶稣并非源自可纠正的无知,而是他们已决定了不信,固执于牢不可破的成见,且自以为是,紧密地关闭心扉,正如耶稣说:「你们看见了我,却仍然不信」(6:36);「你们如果是瞎子,就没有罪了;但你们如今说:我们看得见,你们的罪恶便存留下来了」(9:41)。

不过并非所有的犹太人都如此心硬,在群众中也偶有人为耶稣所触动而开始信他(2:23;8:30;10:42;12:42),说他是好人(7:12),真先知(7:41),然西亚(7:42)。但他们大致都不能克胜群体压力,因为害怕,不敢公开地议论耶稣(7:13),或为了明哲保身,免受诛连,不敢公开承认对耶稣的好感(12:42)。

2.2 尼苛德摩

在那些可被开导的犹太人中,一个最突出的人物是尼苛德摩。他夜间访耶稣,显然是碍于自己的身份?犹太人的首领?不敢公开接近这位问题人物,这位民族公敌,他相信耶稣是「由天而来的师傅」(3:2),这信念有凭可证,「因为天主若不同他在一起,谁也不能行你所行的这些奇迹」(3:2)。尼苛德摩不但是一位德高望重,知书识经的犹太首领,也聪明审慎,善于推理,能见果而思其因,从观察耶稣所行的事迹中悟出他的来源(17)。他一见耶稣便给耶稣的身份下定义说:「师傅,我们知道……」,他觉得已了解耶稣,看清他是何方人物,并可与他在同一层面上谈论事理;但耶稣却立即指出他的「知道」的不足,他们之间还有一大段距离。理智的推敲,传统的权威,经验的智慧,若得不到「重生」(18) 的提升,「由上而生」或「由圣神而生」的转化,仍不能使人与耶稣相通。毕竟了解耶稣不只是「知」(to know) 的问题,而是「是」(to be) 的问题,关乎个人的生命取向,存在核心。当耶稣谈到「重生」,把话题扭向「是」的层面时,尼苛德摩便开始不知,开始误解。耶稣的最后问话:「你是以色列的师傅,连这些事都不知道吗?」(3:10) 与尼苛德摩充满信心的开场白:「师傅,我们知道……」(3:2)相影成趣。

2.3 撒玛黎雅妇人

这妇人的身份与尼苛德摩截然不同。后者是犹太社会的高层人物;前者却属于与犹太人积怨数世纪的撒玛黎雅,是一个生活放肆,思想粗疏的市井妇人。尼苛德摩有心去找耶稣,且对耶稣已有所知;为这息哈尔城的妇女耶稣是偶然遇见的陌生人,她既无心与耶稣交谈,更不期待这相遇会给她带来什么。事实上是耶稣在找她,要把她转化成「以心神及真理朝拜父者」,因为「父就是寻找这样朝拜他的人」(4:23)。

是耶稣首先向这妇女发言,她的第一反应是诧异不解,受得此人与众不同,竟不顾两族人之间渊源深远的芥蒂,若无其事地向她取水喝。耶稣不直接解释她心中的疑团,却继续把她提升,藉着水的象征一步一玄机地引领她进入奥秘(19),而她也透过一次又一次的误解渐渐认识耶稣。这个向他取水的人其实是个施水者,而他所施与的是「永生之水」(4:13-14)。这个「犹太人」(4:9),实在比「先祖雅各伯还大」(20) (4:12),他是个先知(21) (4:19),是默西亚(22) (4:25-26)。在交谈之初耶稣自已也清楚指出那妇人不解的是什么:「若你知道天主的恩赐,并知道向你说:给我水喝的人是谁……」(4:10)。这两个不知都在谈话过程中渐形清晰。

在发掘恩赐及赐恩者的同时,耶稣也引领那妇人一步步地发掘自己。当耶稣突然扭转话题,问及她的个人生活时(23),她没有误解,相反正因为她清楚明白才设法逃避。又当她发觉自己的隐羞也被耶稣看透时,她还想另找藉口,把注意力从自己身上引开,转移到一个具争执性且有深远历史背景的问题上,但耶稣仍不放过她,对她说:「女人,你相信我吧!」跟着给她启示朝拜天主的真缔及在她面前显露自己的默西亚身份。在谈话结束时,「那妇人撇下自己的水罐」(3:28),而耶稣也忘了自己的口喝,他们之间的沟通已升到一个更高超的层面。

2.4 门徒们

从敌人或外人而来的误解,可说是理所当然,但那些已相信耶稣跟随他,最亲近他,最应该明瞭他的人也频频误解他。记载耶稣临别训言及最后祈祷的十三至十七章虽只以耶稣及门徒群为主角,其误解气氛之浓,不下于福音的前半部。不过,有别于犹太人,门徒们向耶稣发的问题并非出于辩论性的质问,而是虚心求解;其内容也非轻浮笼统。他们已被耶稣吸引,跟随了他一段时光,对他有初步认识,但耶稣这位师傅在门徒前比颜回描写孔子所说的:「仰之弥高,钻之弥坚,瞻之在前,忽焉在后」还要高深奥秘。他们不明白耶稣的地方多着。惊奇,不解是他们的恒常态度,更可说这态度与时俱增。当耶稣临别在即,谈及自己的「往父那里去」时(24),他们确实满腹疑团,百思不解。面对他们的问题耶稣不像对犹太人一样采取坚硬或判断性的语气,反而耐心地给他们解释;虽然这些解释都十分精简,点到即止,但已足够进一步开启门徒们的茅塞。

2.5 比拉多

若望用了比对观福音双倍的篇幅来描述耶稣在比拉多前受审的情况(18:20-19:16);这片段为他意义特别深长(25),片段的结构也异常精细巧妙(26)。比拉多与耶稣非敌非友,他自以为与耶稣的事全不相干,对这个人也不知应如何应付。他只以罗马总督的身份去处理一件辣手的案件。执行公义是他的大前提,可是他也十分注重私人利益。「如果你释放这人,你就不是凯撒的朋友」(9:12) 这句话为他的判案起了决断性的作用。从比拉多向耶稣提出的一连串问题:「你是犹太人的君王吗?」(18:33)「你作了什么?」(18:35)「那么,你就是君王了?」(18:37)「什么是真理?」(18:38)「你到底是那里的?」(19:9)「你对我也不说话吗?你不知道我有权柄释放你,也有权柄钉你在十字架上吗?」(19:10) 及他对群众的发问:「你们愿意我给你们释放犹太人的君王吗?」(18:39)「要我把你们的君王钉在十字架上吗?」(19:15)。可见误解的核心在于耶稣的「犹太人君王」身份。比拉多心目中的君王是政治性的,民族性的,而耶稣的王国却不属于这世界(18:36)。他的子民也不限于犹太人,凡属于真理的,都听从他的声音(18:37)。不过比拉多无心聆听耶稣的解释,他不但对这些属灵性的东西一窍不通,且也全无兴趣。

还有一点值得注意的是若望在这里运用了他独特的反讽手法,偏偏要让这位无性格,无主意,无慧心的罗马总督公开地宣布耶稣的王者尊威。比拉多隆重地介绍耶稣:「看这个人」(19:5),「看,你们的君王」(19:14),又在十字架上端用三种当时通行的文字写上:「纳匝助人耶稣,犹太人的君王」(19:19)。他不知不觉地公布了一项他自己也不明白的重要真理(27),可说是剧中人无意,而写剧者有心。



  16. 有关「犹太人」在若望福音中的含意,请参阅:FESTORAZZI E., I Giudei e il IV Vangelo, in San Giovanni (Atti XVII Sett. Biblica), Brescia 1964, 225-260 ; SHEPHERD M.H., The Jews in the Gospel of John. Another level of Meaning, AnglTR, Suppl. III (1974) 95-112.

17. 他那种小心求语,一切慕求合理合法的慎重态度,也可从7:51他为耶稣辩护之言中得见。

18. 这里所用的副词ανωλεν可解作「再次」或「从上面」。故3:37可有「重生」或「由上而生」之意。在释经史中,前者多被拉丁教父采用。希腊教父则较喜用后者,有关这篇言词的研究,参阅:GAETA G., Il dialogo con Nicodemo, Brescia 1974.

19. 参阅:DE LA POTTERIE I., Gesu e i samaritani, in ID., Gesu Verita, Torino 1973, 39-53 ; O’ DAY G.R., Revelation in the Fourth Gospel, Philadelphia 1986, 49ff.

20. 犹太人爱称自己为亚巴郎的子孙,撒玛黎雅人则较喜欢认自己为雅各伯的后裔,参阅McDONALD J., The Theology of the Samaritans, London 1964。4:12可与犹太人的质问「难道你比我们的父亲亚巴郎还大吗?」(8:53) 相比。

21. 4:19:我看你是个先知。λεωεειν(看) 在若望福音中有信的意思。

22. 4:25反影出撒玛黎雅人的默西亚观,默西亚也被称为Taheb,再来者,他是至高的先知,如同梅瑟一样,成为天人中保,撒玛黎雅人的默西亚观没有犹太人的具有那么强烈的政治性。

23. 不少学者认为那妇女不正常的婚姻生活暗示撒玛黎雅人对雅威的不忠。

24. 整篇临别训言(13-17) 都被这个意识渗透。耶稣已踏上归途,预备回归父处,门徒们却要留下,他不愿拋弃他们,愿继续与他们共融。有关此训言的解释参阅:BECKER J., Die Abschiedsrede Jesu im Johannese-vangelium, ZNW 3 / 4 (1970) 215-240 ; BOYLE J., The Last Discourse and Prayer. Some Observations on their Unity and Development, Biblica 56 (1975) 210ff ; WOLL D.B., The Departure of "The Way". The Farewell Discourse in the Gospel of John, JBL 99 (1980) 225-239.

25. 有关此片段参阅:DE LA POTTERIE I., La passione secondo S. Giovanni (18 : 1-19, 42), in AA. VV., La Passione secondo I quaffro vangeli, Brescia 1983 ; ID., Gesu re e giudice secondo Gv 19, 13, in Gesu Verita, 134-157.

26. 比拉多频频出入总督府(四次出,五次入),十分突出,也十分戏剧性。按此特征为原则可将全段分为七幕:A(18:28-32),B(18:33-38a),C(18:38b-40),D(19:1-3),C'(19:4-7),B'(19:8-11),A'(19:12-16)。七幕前后对称,中间一幕是耶稣被兵士们戏称犹太的君王。

27. 这种讽剌手法是若望的特长,尤其会用于苦难叙述中,耶稣的敌人本想攻击他或取笑他,却无意中道出一些含意极深的真理,如7:42犹太人说:「难道默西亚能来自加里肋亚吗?」11:50盖法的说话,19:2-3:兵士们的戏弄及茨冠加冕等。

3. 天人之距

虽然在救恩史中天主纾尊降贵,用人的说话方式来跟人交谈(28),但天人之间的沟通却不因此而变成平起平坐式的交往,天主的说话始终是由上而下的,沟通的两端始终处于两个不同的层面,正如天主藉依撤意亚先知所说:「如天离地有多高,我的行径离你们的行径,我的思念离你们的思念也有多高」(依55:9)。聆听天主发言常是以有限容无限,以有涯逐无涯,了解天主的意思总是以小人之心测度至尊天主之腹,今日如是,当时跟随耶稣的门徒亦如是,圣史们写福音的教会初期也如是。

在四福音中若望最刻意强调这天人之距。「你们出于下,我却是出于上;你们是出于这个世界,我却不是出于这个世界」(8:23)。对耶稣的误解或不解的最终根源,正在于此。不解是攀不上高深的境界,误解还加上另一个困难;离不开「出于下」的想法,超越不了「出自这世界」的成见,「那出于下地的,是属于下地,且讲论下地的事」(3:31)。最顽劣的误解是将这「出于下」的想法绝对化,执迷不悟,身在错谬中却以为拥有真理,因而蔑视别人,与耶稣相遇时这种自欺欺人的态度自然地被揭露,耶稣把这些人喻为自以为看得儿的瞎子。「我是为了判别,才到这世界上来,叫那些看不见的,一看得见;叫那些看得见的,反而成为瞎子」(9:38)。

3.1 对耶稣言行的误解

在若望笔下耶稣被误解的片段中,可见有时被误解的是耶稣的所作所为,如在临别晚餐时为门徒洗脚(13:2-20)。人们只按常理去明瞭,却看不出其深层意义,耶稣这样斥责寻找他的群众:「我实实在在告诉你们:你们寻找我,并不是因为看到了标记(29),而是因为吃饼吃饱了」(6:26)。有时被误解的是耶稣的说话,听者只懂其表面所言,而不解其意向所指。如「圣殿」表面是指耶路撒冷圣殿,但却指向耶稣的身体;「重生」、耶稣的「食物」、拉匝禄「睡着了」、耶稣的「被高举」、他的「回去」等,都有其超字面的更深意义。

3.2 对耶稣身份的误解

归根到底,对耶稣言行的误解其真是基于对耶稣的身份,他的奥迹的整体性,甚或在他身上显露出来的救恩计划的误解。因为耶稣言行的深层意义并非本已隐藏在言行的意义范畴之内,可靠逻辑推理来引伸,或靠验证考察来发掘;却因为是出自耶稣之身,发自耶稣之口,而有其崭新的,超值的意义。如「圣殿」,若没有耶稣的逾越奥迹,何来「耶稣身体」之解?

在误解的片段中,大部份是直接以耶稣的身份及使命为内容的。耶稣从何而来?往那里去?来作什么?他到底是谁?这些问题是误解的主要来由。当耶稣谈及他的「从天而降」时,犹太人都只顾他在世的来源,彼此议论说:「这人不是若瑟的儿子耶稣么?他的父亲和母亲,我们岂不是都认识么?怎么他竟说:我是从天上降下来的呢?」(6:42)。他们竟因知道了这些普遍的身份证资料而以为可以看透耶稣的来源。「我们知道这人是那里的;然而,当默西亚来时,却没有人知道他是那里的」(7:27)。

耶稣的先存性及他之为救恩历史的中心也被误解。犹太人自恃为 「亚巴郎的子孙」(8:39)及「梅瑟的门徒」(9:28),却不明其中深意,不知亚巴郎曾欣喜地企望看到耶稣的日子(8:57),也不知梅瑟所写的一切都是指着耶稣而写的(4:46)。他们只表面地看到耶稣与亚巴郎及梅瑟的历史距离,故不经思索地提出一些即发问题:「你还没有五十岁,就见过亚巴郎吗?」(8:58),「这人没有进过学,怎么通晓经书呢?」(7:14)。同样,撒玛黎雅妇人也这样问耶稣:「你从那里得那活水呢?难道你比我们的祖先雅各伯还大吗?」(4:12);这些既自然直截又幼稚无知的问题把耶稣与他的误解者之间的距离反影得相当清楚。

有关耶稣的「去」又是误解多多,「我出自父,来到了世界上,我又离开世界,往父那里去」(16:28) 这是若望的基督观中的一重要思想,但他笔下的耶稣听众,却不易明瞭。那些不解耶稣从何而来者,自然不知他要往那里去,所以当他向犹太群众说:「我要回到派遣我来者那里」(7:33)及「你们要找我,却找不着,我所在的地方你们不能去」(7:34;8:21) 他门的反应又是一番误解,甚至提出一些可笑的猜测:「难道他要往散居在希腊民中的犹太人那里,去教训希腊人么?」(7:35)「莫非他要自杀吗?」(8:22),就连对他认识较深的门徒们面对耶稣的回去也迷惘莫解。伯多禄问他:「主,你往那里去?」(13:36),「主,为什么现在我不能跟你去?我要为你舍掉我的性命!」(13:37)。他豪情激昂,壮志填胸,以为既有足够的忠毅与热诚,肯为师傅拋头颅,洒热血,就没有什么可阻止他跟耶稣同行。可是他错了,跟随耶稣回父家根本不是匹夫之勇的问题。比较冷静,实事求事的多默对耶稣「去」的问题也同样摸不着头脑,他问耶稣:「主!我们不知道你往那里去,怎么会知道那条路呢?」(14:5) 耶稣遂向他解释,往父去的道路就是他自己「我是道路,真理,生命,除非经过我,谁也不能到父那里去」(14:6)。

至于耶稣与父的关系,他的天主子身份,他给人带来的救恩等启示,也是一步一误解地不易被明瞭。斐理伯不明谁看见耶稣,就是看见了父,还天真地问他:「主!把父显示给我们,我们就心满意足了」(14:8)。当耶稣谈及「我与父原是一体」(14:30) 时,犹太人认为他亵圣,要用石头砸死他。他们不明也不信耶稣的天主子身份,控诉他说:「你是人,却把自己当作天主」(14:33)。又当耶稣说:「谁遵行我的话,永远见不到死亡」(8:51),犹太人也愤怒异常,对他说:「现在我们知道:你附有魔鬼,亚巴郎和先知都死了……你把自己当作什么人呢?」(8:52-53) 玛尔大一家人与耶稣交情深厚,但她对耶稣的天主子身份仍有误解。她相信耶稣有能力使她的兄弟拉匝禄不死,但她以为这能力系于他的真实临在:「若是你在这里,我的兄弟决不会死!」(11:21)或系于他有力的代祷,「就是现在,我也知道:你无论向天主求什么,天主必要赐给你」(11:22)。当耶稣肯定地对她说:「你的兄弟必定要复活」,她不觉得有何值得兴奋。当代的犹太人一般都相信肉身复活(30),所以她再一次对耶稣说:「我知道」;「我知道在末日复活时,他必复活」(11:24)。耶稣却对她说:「我就是复活,就是生命;信从我的,即使死了,仍要活着;凡活着而信从我的人,必永远不死」(11:25-26)。

3.3 对耶稣逾越奥迹的误解

在耶稣身上最玄妙莫测的,亦即是最易误解的,是他的逾越奥迹,他的救恩工程的高峰。在耶稣被误解各片段中有两段直接与这奥迹有关(31):犹太人对「三天内重建圣殿」(2:19-22)及「人子被高举」(12:31-36) 的误解。这两片段分配在若望福音前半部?标记之书?的首及尾。它们都有一易见的相同特征,就是耶稣对误解者不作回应,不加解释,而是初期教会在耶稣逾越奥迹实现后重温这些事迹时,悟出耶稣说话的真缔。

耶稣在圣殿内驱逐商人这片段三位对观圣史都有记载,但三位都将它放在耶稣公开生活的最后期,即荣进耶路撒冷后,受难前数天(32)。若望却把它放在耶稣公开生活之始,直接与加纳婚宴相连,且特别点出时间:在逾越节期间(2:13)。加纳婚要的变水为酒是耶稣所作的第一个标记,显示了自己的光荣(2:18),驱逐商人后犹太人追问耶稣:「你给我们显示什么标记,证明你有权柄作这事?」(2:18)。在婚宴中水变成酒是新约取替旧约的象征,现在若望要介绍新圣殿取替旧圣殿,新逾越取替旧逾越。新圣殿是耶稣的身体,天主光荣的所在(参阅1:14-17),新逾越是他的死亡复活,这一切都远超当时耶稣听众的理解能力,犹太人自然地误解了他。圣殿为他们就只有他们的祖先艰辛地用人手盖成的这一座,所以他们对耶稣说:「这座圣殿建筑了四十六年,你在三天之内就会重建起它来吗?」(2:20)

有关「人子被高举」的言论出自耶稣的最后一篇公开讲道(12:23-36)。这篇讲道内容以耶稣的死亡及复活为中心。首先耶稣以麦子的比喻谈及自己要藉死亡而受光荣(23-28)。有天上的声音强调及解释耶稣所说。「我已光荣了我的名,我还要光荣」(28)。耶稣藉他的降生及所行标记,已显示了天主的光荣,现在藉他的死亡与复活,天主的光荣还要在他身上大大地彰显。群众不明这一切,误解天上声音的来由(29)。跟着,耶稣第二次发言谈及自己的被高举(30-32),圣史为耶稣的说话作诠释:「他说这话,是表明他要以怎样的死而死」(33)。群众有一次误解耶稣(34)。全篇讲词的架构工整:两次启示,两次注解,两次误解。最后,耶稣邀请听众在光中行走,然后离开和隐退(35-36)。

从群众的问题:「我们从法律上知道:默西亚要存留到永远(33);你怎么说:人子必须被举起呢?这个人子是谁?」(34) 可见他们的理解困难在于怎样将他们已知道的,和现在耶稣所说的,放在一起;怎样将他们已有的默西亚观和这个新被介绍的被举起的人子协调。其实,解决方法不难,只要将两者同放在耶稣身上便可,但他们却看不出来。

从地上被高举的人子与落在地下死掉的麦子同是指耶稣的逾越奥迹。麦子死了,结出许多子粒(24),人子从地上被举起来,要吸引众人归向他(32)。在若望的神学构思中,耶稣的死亡及他的受光荣是同一回事(34)。在比拉多审判耶稣及整个苦难叙述中若望都刻意强调耶稣王者的尊威,所以用「被高举」来描写耶稣的死亡实在贴切不过。它一方面道出耶稣被钉在十字架上,从地上被举起(35),另一方面也表示耶稣藉他的死亡而受举扬,接受天主的显耀及被世人尊为救主及君王。在若望福音中,耶稣三次提及自己的「被高举」(3:14;8:28;12:32),其意义与三位对观圣史叙述的耶稣三次预言自己的苦难(36) 相等。这些高深的启示内蕴若望当然不会强求耶稣的即时听众能了解。相反,藉他们的误解更衬托出天主的计划令人赞叹,他的救恩工程远超常人智慧之所及。不过这一切天主也不愿永久地将之封于天书,成为密闭的秘语,在祂指定的时刻,自会揭晓(37)。

  28. 参阅梵蒂岗第二届大公会议,启示宪章12。

29. σημειον= 标记。若望称耶稣的奇迹为标记,此字在他的福音中出现17次。

30. 当代犹太人通用的祷文「十八祝福」中有此句:「主,你的大能永远常存,因为你给死者赐与生命」。在耶稣时代,法利塞人相信复活,撒杜塞人却不信,参阅谷12:18;宗23:8。

31. 还有一段也可被视为与逾越奥迹有关:犹太人对永生之粮的误解。「我所要赐给的食粮,就是我的肉,是为世界的生命而赐给的」(6:51)。此言预指圣体圣事,更预指耶稣的逾越牺牲。

32. 玛21:12-17;谷11:15-17;路19:45-66。

33. 古经从未说过默西亚要存留到永远,但却有提及他的后裔将永存,参阅咏89及37。

34. 这是若望福音中一条十分清晰的神学路线,参阅:THUSING W., Die Erhohung und Verherrlichung Jesu im Johannes-evangelium, Munster 1979 ; DE LA POTTERIE I., L’ exaltation du Fils de l’ homme (Jn 12 : 31-36), Greg 49 (1968) 460-478.

35. 除了在苦难叙述以外,若望从不用「被钉」来形容耶稣的死亡。

36. 玛16:21;17:22-23;20:18-19及谷,路平行文。

37. 参阅默5。

4. 时机未到

除了基本的天人之距外,时机的未成熟也是耶稣被他的对话者误解的其中因由。天主与人交谈时不把人从历史抽离,而情愿自己走入人类历史,被卷入时光的转流中。耶稣分享了人类的生命历程,一步步从生到死走了三十多个年头。正如在人生中并非每一刻钟都有等量的生命浓度及深度;个别的言语,动作,不常能显露生命的整体及重心;了解耶稣亦不能局限于从他的个别言行中窥其边际,要从他的生命颠峰?他的逾越奥迹?去睹其全貌。

四位圣史都有同样的想法:玛尔谷小心地在福音中布局,引出他的「默西亚秘密」,围绕着「耶稣是谁」这问题制造悬疑气氛,要到耶稣被钉在十字架上,百夫长看到耶稣如何死去,作出他的信仰见证:「这人真是天主子!」(谷15:39),悬疑才消解。玛窦虽不强调耶稣的不易被了解,但也等到耶稣复活后才让门徒们接受耶稣的隆重派遣,叫他们往普世,使万民成为门徒,并教训万民遵守他所吩咐的一切(玛28:18-20),路加也特意描写耶稣在复活后显现给两位往厄玛乌的门徒,领导他们将一切有关耶稣的资料及体验整合起来,只这样他们才开启眼目,认出他来(路24:13-32)。若望亦两度清楚地指出逾越奥迹是了解耶稣的钥匙。当他叙述犹太人不明重建圣殿之言的深意时,加上自己的反省:「当他从死者中复活以后,他的门徒就想起了他曾说过这话,便相信了圣经和耶稣说过的话」(2:22)。在耶稣骑驴荣进圣城时,若望指出耶稣藉此举表露他的默西亚君王身份,不过他立即加上:「起初,他的门徒也没有明白这些事,然而当耶稣受光荣以后,他们才想起这些话是指着他而记载的,为此,他们就这样对地做了」(12:16)。

在若望福音耶稣被误解的片段中,可见耶稣不强求他的对话者了解他所说,也多次放弃给他们详细解释。「我本来还有许多事要告诉你们,然而你们现在不能担当」(16:12),「现在」指的是「我还与你们同在的时候」(14:15;16:4),或「事未发生以前」(13:19)。在这期间,无论群众或最亲近他的门徒们,都未有全面性地了解耶稣的条件,他们见到的是一些零碎的事迹,虽然这些事迹本身意义深长,足以令他们激动,皈依,但最精釆的,最令人惊讶赞叹,最超乎一切猜想的还在后头。

这关键性的时刻,若望称之为耶稣的「时辰」(ωεα) (38)。这「时辰」指的是耶稣的逾越奥迹,他的死亡,复活,升天。它是耶稣自我显示的颠峰,救恩工程的顶点。耶稣来世就是为此,他的一生迈向这「时辰」(12:27)。这时辰就是他从地上被高举,吸引一切人归向他的时候(12:32);是他在十字架上为王,被举扬,受光荣的时候;是他说「完成了」交出灵魂的时候(19:30);也是他离开此世,回归父处,在那里为他所爱的人预备地方的时候(14:2-3)。耶稣频频提及这「时辰」,在他公开生活之始,被母亲催促,显示他的光荣时,他便说:「我的时刻尚未到来」(2:4)。他对群众的最后公开讲词也以这「时辰」的迫近为开端:「人子要受光荣的时辰到了」(12:23)。与门徒的最后晚餐及给他们的最后训言亦以此作启幕:「在逾越节庆日前,耶稣知道他离此世归父的时辰已到……」(13:1)。最后,他向父的祈祷也不离此思想,祷文的第一句便是:「父啊!时辰来到了,光荣你的手,好叫你的子也光荣你」(17:1)。

在若望的神学构思中,这「时辰」是了解耶稣的决断性条件,无论耶稣在世时的门徒,或他离世升天后在教会内跟随他的人,除非透过逾越奥迹,不能真正地明白耶稣是谁。「当你们高举了人子以后,你们便知道我就是那一位」(8:28)。「到那一天,你们便知道我在我父内,你们在我内,我也在你们内」(14:20)。「到那一天,你们什么也不必问我了」(16:23)。


5. 圣神的贯通

若望虽然强调「时辰」的到来在了解耶稣的过程中的关键性,但却没有将一切视为自然的发展。这天人的沟通还需要一股动力?圣神的光照,启迪,引领(39)。

5.1 圣神超越血肉

在耶稣被误解的片段中,很多都有提及圣神。当尼苛德摩误解「重生」的意义时,耶稣对他说:「我实实在在告诉你,人除非由水和圣神而生,不能进天主的国;由肉生的属于肉,由神生的属于神。你不要惊奇,因我给你说了:你们应该由上而生。风随意向那里吹,你听到风的响声,却不知风从那里来,往那里去;凡由圣神而生的就是这样。」(3:5-8)。「神」(πνενμα) 与「血肉」(σαεξ) 的对立是一个典型的若望神学主题。尼苛德摩的误解耶稣基于他的仍属「血肉」层面,不能从天主的观点去思想,生活。藉着圣洗,圣神能将他转化,使他变成一个 「由上而生」或「由天主而生」(8:41;1:13;若一3:9;4:7;5:1,4,18) 的新人,使他得享圣神的奇妙德能。这「神」与「血肉」的对立在犹太人误解永生之粮的片段中再次出现。耶稣对窃窃私语的犹太人说:「这话使你们起反感吗?使生活的是神,肉一无所用;我给你们所讲论的话,就是神,就是生命」(6:62-63),在与撒玛黎雅妇人交谈的最后阶段,耶稣向那妇女解释,朝拜天主不在乎地方。「天主是神,朝拜他的人,应当以心神(πνευμα) 以真理去朝拜他。」(4:24) 意思是说:在默西亚时代朝拜天主者应藉圣神的德能,按照耶稣启示的真理去朝拜他,这种朝拜是超越时空种族的。是新约子民,由上而生的天主子女的祈祷精神(40)。可见在耶稣与人沟通时,圣神使两端调合,为这沟通预备条件,他使人从庸俗狭窄,浅薄粗陋的血肉层面向上提升,也使人向前跃进,超越旧约的规条及人为的桎梏,迈向新约更深远,更广阔,更内在,受自由的境界,能与耶稣「是神,是生命」的说话起共鸣。

5.2 圣神为耶稣作证

在耶稣方面,圣神与他密切共融。「天主所派遣的,讲论天主的话,因为天主把圣神无限量地赏赐了他」(3:34)。圣神的话,就是耶稣的话,也是父的话。圣神「不想自己讲论,只把他所听到的讲出来,并把未来的事传告给你们。他要光荣我,因为他要把由我领受的,传告给你们」(16:13-14)。而耶稣的话,也不是他自己的,而是派遣他来的父的。「我由他听来的,我就讲给世界听」(8:28),「我的教训,不是我的,而是派遣我来者的」(7:16;14:10,24)。在圣三内,父、子、神的说话相同相通,他们之间没有误解,也没有独家讯息。当他们要将这说话传给世人时,父藉子以人的方式向人发言,而圣神就使这说话在人心内扎根结果。

耶稣在世时有历史性的局限,时候到了,他要「离开世界,回到父那里去」(16:28),但圣神却与跟随基督者同在,「我要求父,他必会赐给你们另一位护慰者,使他永远与你们同在」(14:16)。有别于子的「成了血肉,寄居在我们中间」(1:14),圣神的临在是内在的:「他与你们同在,并在你们内」(14:17),不受时空限制。耶稣的「去」与圣神的「来」直接连系。「我若去了,就要派遣他到你们这里来」(16:7)。圣神使耶稣的临在,他的救恩,他的说话内在化,宇宙化,永久化,超越耶稣以血肉之躯在世时的框框。在耶稣的临别训言中他刻意强调这点。他知道他的说话,基于人的沟通方法的局限及天人交谈本身的困难,不足以立即结出完满的果实,圣神继续他的工程,使那些已消失在历史中的耶稣说话重现在聆听者的心头,「我还与你们同在的时候,给你们讲论了这些事;那护慰者,就是父因我的名所要派遣来的圣神,他必教训你们一切,也要使你们想起,我对你们所说的一切」(14:25-26)。「想起」不单是死板地把耶稣已往的说话在心内重播,而是使昨天的说话今天重活于心,同时也是对说话的更深一层的明瞭,排除误解,使真理显得更真,被接受得更心悦诚服,更融汇贯通,从了解耶稣的个别言行达至进入他的奥迹。「那发于父的真理之神来到时,他必要为我作证」(15:26),「当那一位真理之神来时,他要把你们引入一切真理」(16:13)。



39. 圣神在若望福音中占一重要地位,若望的圣神观的其中几个特点是圣神被称护卫者,παεαμλητγγδ,及真理之神,他与耶稣的关系十分密切。有关这主题参阅:BROWN R.E., The Paraclete in the Fourth Gospel, NTS 13 (1967) 113-132 ; GERRARO G., Lo Spirito Santo nel quarto vangelo, Roma 1981 ; JOHNSTON G., The Spirit-Paraclete in the Gospel of John, Cambridge 1970 ; DE LA POTTERIE 1., Le paraclet, l'Esprit de la verite, in ID., La verite dans saint Jean, I, Roma 1977 329-378 ; GHIBERTI G., Spirito e vita cristiana in Giovanai, Brescia 1989.

40. DE LA POTTERIE I., Adorare il Padre nello Spirito e nella Verita, in "Parola Sirito e Vita" 3 (1981) 140-155.


6. 认识耶稣

约略分析了数点误解耶稣的因由后,一个问题随而产生,误解既是交谈的不成功,是沟通的负面结果,那么,正面的,理想的结果应是如何?若望的答覆是:认识耶稣(41)。当撒玛黎雅妇人误解耶稣的活水之谈时,耶稣对她说:「若是你知道天主的恩赐,并知道向你说:给我水喝的人是谁,你或许早求了他,而他也早赐给了你活水」(4:10)。那妇人之所以没有这样做,是因为她不知道,不认识耶稣及他带来的恩赐。

在若望福音中,认识耶稣及藉耶稣认识天主包括了整个救恩奥迹。在耶稣的最后祈祷中他对父说:「你赐给了子权柄,掌管凡有血肉的人,是为叫他将永生赐给一切你所赐给他的人。永生就是:认识你,唯一的真天主,和你所派遣来的耶稣基督」(17:2-3)。得永生者就是认识耶稣者;相反,拒绝救恩,与永生无份者是因为他们没有认识父,也没有认识耶稣。

6.1 认识与爱

认识耶稣决非指理智上的辨理认知,或思维上的推敲求解,最重要的是生命的融合。在沟通过程中很多时误解的发生不是因为言者不达意,也不是因为听者理解力不足或其他天时地利的问题,而是缺少了人和,两者之间没有深情的感应,没有心灵的冥合,不能达到心有灵犀一点通的妙境。这情况耶稣在善牧比喻中表露无遗;「我是善牧,我认识我的羊,我的羊也认识我,正如父认识我,我认识父一样」(10:14-15)。耶稣竟以他与父的亲密关系作他与跟随他者生命共融的典范。这番说话,抗拒他的犹太人自然不解,认为他附了魔或发了疯(10:20),还强迫耶稣坦白地表明自己的身份。耶稣答覆他们说:「我已告诉了你们,你们却不信;我以找父的名所作的工作为我作证,但你们还是不信,因为你们不是属于我的羊」(10:25-26)。最清楚的言词,对有力的事证也不能使他们了解,因为缺少了那种存在性的归属,生命的交付及汇通。

正因他们不属于耶稣,所以容纳不下他的话(8:31),没有把他的话存留在心中(5:38),他们不肯听他(8:43),在他们心内没有天主的爱情(5:42)。所以,误解耶稣主要不是理智的问题,而是心的问题,爱的问题,整个存在,整个生命的问题,「凡有爱的,都是生于天主,也认识天主」(若一4:7)。耶稣更用了葡萄树的比喻来描绘这种奇妙的生命沟通:「我是葡萄树,你们是枝条」(15:5),「你们住在我内,我也住在你们内」(15:4),「你们如果住在我内,我的话也存在你们内……如此你们就成为我的门徒」(15:8)。因着这彼此归属,彼此寓居,生命的彼此参透,耶稣与他的门徒之间形成了一个默契的氛围,超越主客之分,能无沟而通,不用外来的疏导而能深深冥合,耶稣的说话变成一种内在的说话,被爱所容纳,消化。「如果你们遵守我的命令,便存在我的爱内,正如我遵守了我父的命令而存在他的爱内一样」(15:10)。这样的沟通,远离误解,而臻至悟解的境界。有了这生命的融合,耶稣的说话不再是误解的机缘,而是悟道之乐的泉源:「我对你们讲论了这些事,为使我的喜乐存在你们内,使你们的喜乐圆满无缺」(15:11)。

6.2 认识与信

为达到这种生命融合的认识耶稣,若望除了提到爱及「居住在主内」之外,也十分强调信仰(42)。这是与耶稣交往不可或缺的条件。信也是一种生命的交付,藉信仰的直觉可达到理智所未及和客观证据之不足(43)。从初步的信仰出发,渐渐更深入地认识耶稣,再臻至悟通的妙境:这是若望在福音中描绘的典型信仰历程。对不少误解他的人耶稣不即时作理论式的纠正或解释,而邀请他们相信,为能看见及了解。玛尔大当初不太明白耶稣说及自己是复活,生命,也误解了耶稣所说:「妳的兄弟必要复活」,但当耶稣问她:「你信么?」她回答说:「是的,主,我相信你是默西亚,天主子,要来到世界上的那一位」(11:I7)。她的信仰是基本的,她信耶稣是默西亚,但还看不清这与她兄弟的必要复活的实在关系,在坟前她还善意提醒耶稣,拉匝禄被埋葬已有四天,尸体已开始腐化,耶稣遂对她说:「我不是告诉过你:如果你信,就会看到天主的光荣吗?」(11:40) 信是「看得到」的先决条件。犹太人不信,虽然他们以为看得见,以为已认识耶稣,但其实他们是瞎子(9:39)。纳塔乃耳起初对耶稣冷漠,甚至轻视,但当耶稣一言道出他的为人时,他开始被耶稣吸引,相信他,耶稣遂对他说:「因为我向你说:我看见了你在无花果树下,你就信了吗?你要看见比这更大的事!」(1:50)。

当耶稣说完他的天降之粮言论,引起群众的不解及反感时,耶稣要求他的门徒们表态,在拋弃他及跟随他之间作抉择,伯多禄坚决地说:「我们相信且知道你是天主的圣者」(6:69)。在跟随耶稣的生活体验中,信仰与认识支持着他与耶稣的关系,使它经得起考验,坚定不移。

在一场激烈的辩论中,耶稣严厉地指出敌对他的犹太人不认识他,也不认识父(8:19)。在群众中却有些人相信了他。耶稣便对他们说:「你们如果固守我的话,就确是我的门徒,也会认识真理,而真理会使你们获得自由」(8:31-32)。耶稣精简地列出一条信仰路程及其各步骤:相信他,坚守他的话,跟随他,成为他的真正门徒,认识以他为中心的真理,得享他带来的救恩及新生命。相信是过去式的,成为门徒是现在,认识却是将来式。信仰是认识的初步,认识是信仰的完满(44)。



  41. 若望用两个字眼来表达「认识」:γινωσμειν(在福音中出现55次)及ειδεναι(有「知道」之意,在福音出现86次)。有关此主题参阅:DE LA POTTERIE I., "Oida" et "ghinosko". Les deux modes de la connaissance dans le quatrieme evangile, in "Studia Biblica et Orientalia" II (1959) 141-157 ; CARL K.J., Knowing in St. John. Background of the Theme, IndTSt XXI / I (1984) 68-82.

42. 参阅SCHLIER H., Fede, conoscenza e amore nel vangelo secondo Giovaani, in ID., Riflessioni sul Nuovo Testameoto, Brescia 1969, 361-379 ; SCHNACKENBURG R., Il credere giovanneo, in ID., Il vangelo di Giovanni, I, Brescia 1973, 697-719 ; GRECH P., L'itinerario di fede in Giovanni, in AA. VV., Quaerere Deum (Atti XXV sett. Bibblica), Brescia 1980 437-446.

43. 奥斯定的credo ut intelligam及安瑟莫的fides quaerens intellectum可在若望福音中找到共鸣。

44. πιστιδ及γνωδσιδ将成为教父神学?特别第三、四世纪的东方神学教父?及中世纪修道院神学的一个典型研究主题。

结语

若望福音自教会初期已被视为一本「属灵的福音」。二世纪末亚历山大里亚的格肋孟有云:「因见于形体性(σωματικα) 的事迹已有载于其他福音,若望受天主的然启及弟子们的催使,写了一部属灵(πνευματικον) 的福音」(45)。诚然,若望笔下的耶稣,说话和行事都风格高逸,玄妙莫测,神韵独具,非庸夫俗子所能了解。福音中耶稣多次被误解正是制造这种气氛的主要因素。

为什么若望要制造这种气氛?为什么他偏要用误解这种手法?对此问题学者们已作过研究,按H. LEROY(46),这种文体来自一个受「神知学」(gnosticism) 影响,与犹太人有强烈冲突,又十分关心信友的信仰培育的团体。G. IACOPINO(47) 认为作者刻意纠正第一世纪末的几种错谬趋势,如:将耶稣的形象政治化,物质化,俗化;对圣神的恩赐过份夸张及近乎狂热的兴奋;神知学派因拥有「神知」的自恃。本文的用意不在探讨这「为什么」,却欲观其效果,即文章本身传递给读者的意识及感受。

藉耶稣屡被误解的现象若望给他的读者留下一种对「了解基督」的特别体会。

*首先,了解基督非易事,基于天人之距,与耶稣沟通常是一个存在性的跳跃。误解就是因为跳不动或跳得不高。

*「了解耶稣」此语实应宾主颠倒,人不是主动者,而是被卷入天主的奥秘中。误解生于人之喧宾夺主,企图以有限容无限。

*耶稣的一生应由尾至首,由死至生去了解。远离他的逾越奥迹,就不能把握他所言所行的真缔。误解是支离破碎地窥其边际,而不能从核心出发,观其全貌。

*耶稣是新约的开端及中心,他的身份,言,行都蕴含着不可预期的新意。误解就有如将新酒放入旧皮囊,以旧装新。

*了解耶稣其真是一种悟解,一种超越推理思辨的领会,一种生命的契合汇通,与耶稣交往若无这深情的感应,悟解易流为误解。

*圣神的潜移默化不可缺少,他为耶稣作证,使人更深入了解耶稣,记起他所说的一切。忘记圣神,就会忘记耶稣。

*了解耶稣并非一劳永逸的工夫,而是永无止境的路途,其中不解,误解,了解,悟解,互相交替。若望福音的最后结语云:「耶稣所行的还有许多别的事;假使要一一写出来,我想所要写的书,连这世界也容不下」(21:25)。读者读完福音后也可以说:耶稣的奥迹高深丰富,古今东西,世界各人都解之不尽,探之不竭。



45. 引自安瑟伯(Eusebius),《教会历史》,VI,14:7。

46. 见13。

47. IACOPINO G., op. cit., 194-196.
第十四卷 (1992-93年) 咏十九诠释
作者:房志荣

在看过赞美诗圣咏第八首以后(1),我们即刻看另一首有名的赞美诗,圣咏第十九首。在两相比较之下,会觉到相得益彰。在咏十九里诗人把大自然的秩序与法律的合情合理作了一个综合。下面我们先将本圣咏三个诗段的主旨指点出来,然后再加以详释。

2-7节具体地描述创造界:诸天与穹苍,日与夜的交替,两大光体的照明。天体天界虽不像人能说话,但整个受造界就是一种语言,在赞美天主,在给人启示,毫无界线的阻隔。这种藉着缄默的说话能是宣讲,能是讯息,也能是一种耳语。

8-11节用六个同义词指谓上主的法律,这是表达整体的手法,不必去找每一词字的特殊含意,或词与词之间的区别。这里法律被说成一种出自其身的真实价值,因为法律是稳固的,可靠的,给人带来好的效果。法律给人启示天主的旨意,所以并不压迫人。本圣咏作者的亲身经验是,法律为他是「休息,光亮,喜乐」。

12-15节:作者用一个祈祷谦虚地把自己投入刚描述过的双重秩序中。先求天主宽恕他,救他摆脱法律秩序中的纷扰,连他自己看不出的过错也求天主一并饶恕。自身涤净后,他继续祈求天主让他的赞歌,连同他由心坎所说的话,能与大自然无言的赞美诗相应相称。

详释

有人认为咏十九是由两首圣咏合并而成,因为有两个主题,一是大自然,一是天主的法律;格调前后两样:第一部份2-7节,活泼,不规则,富表达力,好用反词,反调;短短几句话涵盖了极广阔的空间和各种向度;在诗的节奏上由四个重音节转入三个(像中国诗的由七绝转五绝)。

反之,第二部分8-15节,规律化,单调化,同义字在同样的位置,韵律是3+2;语气不是描述,而是陈述,思想没有进展。第一部分是原始的神话心态,称天主为厄耳,第二部分是法律心态,称天主为雅威。

不过这些不同点仍不足以解释本圣咏有两位作者,因为同一位诗人在写不同的对象时能用不同的手法,他可以选择不同的词藻,格调,韵脚等。我们跟大部分诠释家认为咏十九是一首圣咏,按其内容可以分为四部份,即(1) 天与穹苍,(2) 太阳,(3) 法律,和(4)祈祷。

一. 2-7节的分析

(1) 2-5a:

作者不用导论,直截了当地引出天体来讲话。一般赞美诗的邀请,如「请你们赞美」,「请你们歌唱」或「我要歌唱」这里都没有。诸天和穹苍本是空间的代表,这里却被位格化了。诸天在复数,因为有很多层,穹苍则是诸天的边界,顶住外天的水。「诸天」与「穹苍」在希伯来文句里互相交叉,表示将上层的空间概括无余。

地呢?大地或全球是听众,在听天体的赞歌;大地也可视为许多听者的另一空间。这两种讲法都假定一个在上的舞台和台下的广大听众。希伯来人虽不用幕景,但的确有设在高处的讲台,为向众多的听者说话,可参阅民长纪九7;箴言九3。

日与夜本是时问的划分和代表,这里也被位格化,不过说法跟我们不同。我们说日以继夜,或夜尽天明,把日夜说成一个没有中断的整体。希伯来人却不愿把这两样绝不相同的东西混在一起,因为当天主把光与黑暗分开时,日是日,夜是夜,彼此不打交道。所以日与日侃侃而谈,夜与夜讯息相传,像两组平行的军队,前后相传,左右不传。日夜是平行的,诸天和穹苍则是交叉的。

天,穹苍,日,被,作些什么?它们陈述,宣扬,交谈,传递,互换资讯,这些都是语言的不同作用和进展。把不说话的天界说成这样,无非是要强调一个神学真理,即大自然显示一个造物主。作者也知道天体并不真的说话,因此刚才用五个词字肯定它们说话以后,现在再用另外五个词字解释它们并不说话:

(a) 不是一般的话;(b) 没有普通的句子;(c) 没有可听到的声音;(d) 但它们的信息传遍大地;(e) 它们的语言达到地极。谁也不能说大自然的话太远,或它在说一种外国语,因为大自然所说的是一个普遍的语言。这语言远在巴贝塔事件混乱人类语言之前就已存在,并且比任何语言都更高超。

这一高超语言讲些什么?讲两件事:光荣与化工,这是至高天主的一种显现。厄耳是创造者天主的称呼,有普遍的价值。空间与时间因是天主的工程,启示祂的光荣,是在天 主的行动中把祂启示出来。「他手的化工」,化工是在单数,因此非指工程,而指行动。穹苍不宣扬另一工程或其他许多工程,而是穹苍本身既是天主的工程,因此宣扬天主的行动。用哲学名词来说,大自然是一个「象征性结构」(Guardini),以受造的身份指向造物主。我们不是藉着推理,而是藉瞻想看出这一事实。2-5a八行诗句把天地间的一切都概括无余。所用的写法是:天在说,地在听,虽然不是一般的语言,它的信息却无远弗届。

(2) 5b-7:

作者在此引进一个重要的角色:太阳,它在天空的旅程划分了白天和黑夜。在希伯来文太阳是阴性的,表达母性的生命力。但这里诗人把它写成阳性,像一名英雄,身材高大,步伐迅速,整个的白日都在它控制下,就像咏八所说繁星控制着黑夜一样。

诗人用家庭生活描写太阳:它有幢帧幕?洞房,洞房里有一张床,他在此度过爱情之夜。早上起床,束装就道,要开始他一天的行程,从东走到西。没有问题,他很有把握地完成他的使命,在所经之地分散热能。是好是坏,受欢迎或受人埋怨都没有关系。无论怎样,世上没有一个角落不受到太阳热力的影响。

太阳默不作声,但它的热能是一个有力的行动,像高天和穹苍一样地宣扬着一个普遍的信息。与天和穹苍相比,太阳有一个动的形象,行动快速,穿过那些不动的天体。动以外是热。这里有点奇怪的是,创世纪第一章先说光是在有星辰以前被分开,但在太阳受造以后,它主要的任务是照明,本圣咏却只提热,不提光。这作何解?也许是因为光可以遮掩逃避,热可无法避免受其感染。关于这点,总训篇43:2-5有一个很相似的描写:「太阳升出,发散热气,的确是至高者奇异的化工!中午的太阳烘热大地……」。



1. 参阅「神学论集」82,1989 463-470及其参考书目。

二. 8-15节的分析

(3) 8-11:

这里也是突然地,没有导论,引入一个新的主题:上主的法律。8-10节的六句话非常规律化,六个指谓法律的同义词所注意的是其同,而非其异。上主也重复六次,说明祂是法律的创立人。六个名词后有六个形容词,都是用来描写法律的。形容词后面再用五个动词说出法律的功用,第六句末尾是一个形容词(全部公允)。最后11节有四个名词(受词) 和两个副词(甘甜,可爱恋adverbs)。

为什么六句,而非七句?因为十诫的第二块石板刻着六条诫命,与另一石板的四条合起来为十诫。另一个可能的解释是,作者要把七字留在后面,就是15节的上主是第七个,以表达完美的意思。咏119也不用七,而用八行诗写出22首歌颂法律的长诗。22是希伯来文字母的数目,这长诗的每八行都用同一个字母开始,这样顺序而下,22首均如此。

11节的两句诗与前六句的结构和韵律已完全不同。这两句诗是用两个比喻把前面所说的作一个综合。一个比喻取自价值的领域,用以衡量价值的物体是黄金。另一个比喻取自人的感受:味觉。法律是最有价值的宝贝,是最有滋味的食品。这不能不使人想起耶15:16和则3:3。作者显然不指谓法律的外在命令,而指其内容和精神。11节的爱恋二字与第十诫所说不可贪他人之财物的贪字是同一动词。又和创3:6的「令人羡慕」的羡慕二字相同。这些暗示都是很有意义的。

吴经熊在他以中国古诗体所译的「圣咏译义」里把六个不同的法律名词及每一名词后的形容词中译如下:

名 词 妙法 形容词 全美
      灵证        万确
      玉律        无瑕
      圣典        皎洁
      天威        分明
      神断  (剖)  黑白
    
(4) 12-15:

12节的虽然(gam) 更好译为「即便」,因为这一单音词引入一系列的反比:法律是完美的,但我不是;法律光照眼睛,但我还有很多事看不清;我看重,也品尝法律,但仍旧守不好。

这最后一段祈祷也是突然开始,没有引论的。作者在13节开始用第一人称「我」来与天主交谈。12节的「你仆人」三字是自谦之词,表示愿意接受天主的盟约,并实行天主的旨意。在若苏厄24章这一说法用了十四次,都指与雅威的关系。

有三件事使本圣咏作者放心不下,并自感卑微:过犯(非故意的错),未觉察的罪愆,和傲慢。

过犯:因缺乏认识,或没有完全同意,不构成罪愆,但以色列的法律对这些过犯仍有很仔细的规定,为教导人民培养正确和敏感的良心。虽然逾规不是罪,仍要罚款,使得下次更小心,更注意。参阅肋末纪4和5章;户籍纪15章。读肋5:17-18。

未觉察或隐密的罪指人的邪恶倾向和一些不纯的动机。虽然法律予以烛照,但人每每不易发觉这些动向,态度和欲望。咏90:8也称天主的光可照出人的隐私。此外可参阅申29:28;依65:6;耶16:17等。可见说天主认得人的隐私是圣经的传统道理。反之,人都不认识自己,一如训道者所说的:「义人和明智人的行为都在上帝的支配下;是爱是恨,没有人知道。没有人知道他将遭遇的事。一切都是空虚」。(训9:1)

最严重的是傲慢、自负,这是指明知故犯的罪,指叛逆的行为。圣经将这一点分的很清楚,可将户15:22,25-26与30相比。出21:14是讲应该处死蓄意谋杀别人的人。申17:12甚至说刚愎自用,不服从祭司或法官的人也该处死。古人说骄傲是最大的罪,圣多玛斯根据德训篇10:15说骄傲是一切罪恶的根源(1(a),2(ae),84,2)。

罪恶是一股力量,想要统制人(mashal),像创4加音故事中所描述的那样:罪像一只猛兽,跨伏在门口想吞殁人,「但你应制服牠」。(创4:7) 本圣咏作者自称仆人,以上主为主人(mashal),只有上主能克服罪恶这头猛兽。因此本圣咏的最后一段由歌颂法律的客观声调转入主观的个人恳祷。他自觉无能为力,只好求主恩宠:先求罪的赦免,再求真实的谦逊,最后祈求他口中的赞美,心中的思念都能蒙上主悦纳。本圣咏对至上神约两个称呼,一个出自大自然:天主;另一个出自盟约:上主。这两个称呼与本圣咏的前两部分对称。



三. 基督徒如何读咏19

圣保禄在致罗马人书第10章18节将本圣咏的第4节用在福音的宣讲上,是否有违原意呢?上世纪末本世纪初的德国名圣经学家Delitsch解释说:「保禄把旧约的话用在新约上,把诸天的普遍宣扬当作宣扬福音的图像,他这样做是正确的。因为圣咏作者本人已把天主在大自然中的启示与书写的圣言启示(法律) 作了一个平行的叙述。」

把两个平行的意义放在眼前,我们能作进一步的了解:基督的复活之光给受造界的象征性结构加以照明,使它的静默语言更加清晰。基督徒所静观和所瞻仰的,已不是一个单纯的受造界,而是经过基督改造过和复兴过的宇宙基督是一切受造物的主宰和典型。

古代圣贤也喜欢发掘本圣咏的另一个图像,而把基督看做太阳和新郎。圣奥思定解释格后11:2时说:宗徒把贞女嫁给一位新郎,这位新郎不是基督是谁?当圣言取了人身时他就是新郎,他在贞女的胎中找到了婚床。他与人性结合为一以后,走出了极贞洁的洞房……像一个大力士高兴地束装就道:诞生、长大、施教、受苦、复活、升天、跑完了他的路程,没有留在路上。

在新约里外在的法律被内在的所取代,那内在的法律就是天主圣神。最后,罗马书信第7章延伸了本圣咏的思路,并决定性地澄清了本圣咏最后一段祈祷的深义。以上这两点也是圣奥思定在他的圣咏诠释里所着意发挥的。为中国文化来说,由大自然到法律,再到基督的救恩,确是一条康庄大道。
第十四卷 (1992-93年) 后现代和新编教理
作者:韩大辉 Hon, Tai Fai, Savio

1992年10月12日至28日,在安替斯岛(Antilles) 的圣多明哥共和国(Santo Domingo),拉丁美洲的主教(CEIAM) 团曾从牧民的角度探讨了福音新传的问题。这次是第四届,第一届是1955年在Rio de Janeiro,第二届是1968年在Medellin,第三届是1979年在Puebla。在第四届会议的筹备过程中,最初的课题是:「为新的文化展开福音新传」,但经连续三次的谘询后,教宗亲自也提出修改,后来亦被正式通过,就是:「福音新传、人性发展、基督文化:耶稣基督昨天、今天、直到永远,常是一样。(希13:8)」。骤看起来,这修改的题目比原先的更长,但却能一针见血,道出信仰、人性和文化统一的泉源就是耶稣基督。

无疑,这次会议虽属个别教会的层面,但却激励普世教会为这时代更新自己的牧民行动。教会的道路就是人,是活在一个固定文化和时空的人,并非抽象的人。本文首先描写今人所活的文化气候,说明所谓「后现代」主义对时代的呼喊,及其对各地所带来的挑战与关怀,诸如多元主义,相对主义和虚无主义等。其次说明教会近几年的回应,就是:福音新传,其核心就是面对新的挑战,分担新的关怀,以新的方式宣告基督;第三阐述教会如何以1992新编的《天主教教理》,来说明在福音新传的行动中,教理讲授应有的内容。后现代和福音新传本身都值得分题讨论,这里只作简介,重要的是说明新编教理的中心思想。

1. 「后现代」的呼喊

人类文明的历史总不能按世纪的数目来划分,因为它有自己的演进过程,世纪的数目只说明这些过程的时期而已。一般学者对西方神学思想发展史:教父时代,中世纪和现代,都有粗略的认同。至于「后现代」就像一条鱼,随着近代文化的潮流,进入了神学的领域,神学家们徒手追捕,以为捉到了,它却从他们手中滑走。人们不得不承认它的存在,因为整个时代几乎都充满「后」的气息:后启蒙,后自由,后工业,后基督宗教,后批判,后共产,后文明,后历史,后人文等的说法。本文将浅谈在「后现代」的讨论中,所冒起的呼声,然后再看天主教教会的回应。

「后现代主义」(postmodernism) 一词的源头,最早可追溯到奥尼思(F. Onis) 在1934年出版的诗选中,其后费兹(D. Fitts) 在其1942年的诗选中也应用过。这词渐渐在艺评文字中多次出现,成为一种「反」现代主义的意义,后来在建筑和艺术中渐渐通行。姑勿论如何,这词拥有一定的魅力,到了60年代中后期,后现代主义已成为一个和现代主义精英意识背道而驰的阵势,标榜反传统、反知性的风格。在70年代前期,诞生了一种存在主义式的后现代思潮。80年代,后现代变得更多元和包容,其中的论说不但南北相异,而且经常有相反和对立的情况出现,成为多元主义(pluralism) 的总称。

后现代主义套上诠释学的外衣,也渐渐进入神、哲学的领域中。它并非是现代主义的衍生或延续,而是一种新文化气候,对「现代」启蒙运动(Enlightenment) 和浪漫主义(Romanticism) 进行再反思。马克思以政治经济理论揭发中产阶级的不义。海森堡以量子论的不确定原理打破科技通天晓的美梦。弗洛特以意识植根本能还击道学之士的禁制。达尔文以进化论威胁人有更高层次精神的理论。海德格以「在此存有」(Dasein) 强调本文(text) 对解释主体产生的本体临现与缺席的张力。伽达然以「认知经验」将主体追寻客观真理的活动规为人的基本存在方式,任何概念和普偏论证都不会彻底确定和终结所发生的事,因为当事情发生时,处身在变化中的人受处境所限,未能吸纳所有资料,事后又是另一个处境。故此,历史常常可在一个新的现在重写。语言和实相大可分家。

「现代」主义企图追求普偏的统一语言、古典高雅的艺术、确凿至高的真理,在这氛围下就反现代的潮流就应运而生。最能预先活出后现代精神的就是尼釆,与其说他是系统思想家,不如说他是位先知。他以语文学点出启蒙神话的没落和浪漫怀旧的不实,人生只是约定俗成的游戏规则,一切形而上的价值观都要瓦解。他甚至宣告「上帝的死亡」,彻底地摈弃一切传统的价值,而导致相对主义、虚无主义能独领风骚。

在现代主义追求古典完美的金科玉律下,制造艺术品的功夫已提升到高不可攀的地步,鉴赏艺术的人亦在寻求新的品味。由是,要通过瓦解才可作崭新重组的念头,在艺术评论中领先出现。通俗艺术的「普普」(Pop) 文化,乘着二次大战后的回转,应运而生。「普普」起源于英国,却在美国走红。艺术的表现脱离古典、高级、认真、堂皇、经得历史考验而立下千古垂名的形式,却标榜噱头机智、信口开河的无厘头、性感有味、迷人媚惑、「不求天长地久,只要曾经拥有」的消费能耐。

「普普」和「达达」(Dada) 艺术相辅相承。1916年在苏黎世,集结一班反战的文人,艺术家,在伏尔泰酒店,参与波尔的表演节目来抒解抑郁的心情:反对政治领导以民族主义作藉口制造战争,反对社会的固有制度,反对理论家冷硬的形式主义。很快地「达达」就流行起来,它不是一种主义,却是一种反逻辑、反制度、反传统、反现在、反未来、反高调的张力,以哗众取宠的手法刺激群众喜怒笑骂,宣泄种种抑郁。因此它的表现采用怪诞惊人的招数,挑衅、粗俗的言词,强调疏离、不协调的效果,讽古说今,构想荒谬的未来,以「折衷」选用的态度(eclecticism),兼容并蓄,甚至包罗一切相反的意念。

将后现代主义推进哲学圈内,作为一套综合当代思朝的描写源于几位代表人物:如:伽达默(H. G. Gadamer),德里达(J. Derrida),福科(M. Foucault),巴尔特(R. Barthes),贝尔(D. Bell),哈贝马斯(J. Habermus),杰姆逊(F. Jameson),斯潘诺斯(W. Spanos),伯斯顿(H. Bertens),哈桑(I. Hassan),李奥达(J. F. Lyotard) 等人。从他们应用的新名词可看到这种潮流,就是「反」和「瓦解」,然后不经意地(by chance) 组合错乱、非逻辑的符号和语句,如:

解构主义 (de-construct),

解合法化 (de-legitimation),

解中心 (de-centerment),

解定位 (de-establishing),

转位 (displacement),

反论 (antithesis),

反秩序 (anarchy),

反讽 (irony),

不定性 (indeterminancy),

延异 (differance),

痕迹 (trace),

互文 (intertext),

换喻 (metonymy),

折衷选用主义 (eclecticism),

转位诠释 (misreading),

分散 (dispersal),

多层透视 (multiple-perspective)等。

这些名词都在鼓励新发现,新追求的努力。他们的思想很快地就在欧美各国引起很多回响和流传在不同层次的讨论中。

在这些讨论中,后现代主义并没有垄断一般人的思想,但吾人若仔细地分析时下的生活方式,就不难发觉这词并非只是哲学家们的发明,而是他们企图用来针对时下的生活,而作出的反省。后现代主义与其说是一种既定的思想主流,毋宁说是一种关怀、一种突破现代主义框框的的尝试,旨在超越或拾回在权威下不许苟延的风格,加强吾人的宽容力,不让专家们垄断,却为发明家创造空间。

这种「后现代」的关怀引发多元的表达,这对相信绝对真理的宗教人来说,当然也会带来不可逃避的挑战:就是理性与自由的折腾,科技与俗化的霸权,根源与传统的失调,人文与宗教的蔽塞。后现代的人并不追求对理性有统一的定义,否则人又会寻求所谓的客观的律法,去合法化(legitimation) 某些行为和作风。于是,理性与存有分割,语言与形上实相不符,自由选择并不需要具有任何道德目的,解合法化就是顺从个人的本能和自我的扩张,无须介怀甚么系统和「典范」,社会生活不以某种秩序为先,而应以容忍性(permissiveness) 为主。

工业征服自然却又蹂躏自然,破坏生态。科技使人生活舒适,但物欲熏心。商业不断将人际的经验视为「消费品」,越强烈就越具快感,越具快感就越偏向激情,越偏向激情就越拋离理性,越使官能感受尖锐化,以至面对生活理想都不能反应,成为瘫痪的。为抗衡一切权威、独裁和禁制,必须瓦解传统认定的价值根源,因而传统本身也失去维系力。马克思的预言经不起考验,解放的神话没落了,对世纪末的「大执位」有迫切的期待,新纪元(New Age) 的迷信随之崛起。一切的人文关怀收缩在横面的地平,排除或忽略纵面,不谈起越,不顾来生,剥夺一切超然的宗教真理的可信性。宗教本身的信仰与生活文化的脱节,致使宗教在多元化的衍生和漫延中渐失去原有的身分,甚至连宗教团能也分化,所谓「邪教」也就应运而生。

2. 教会的回应--福音新传 (New Evangelization)

「福音新传」在最近的教会文件中经常出现,1990年教宗若望保禄二世在《救主使命》通谕中,为纪念梵二《教友传教法令》廿五周年,更刻意提醒天主子民这个重任说:

「天主正在为教会的前路开启人类的地平,在那里人们更圆满地准备好散播福音的种子。我感到时机已至,要动员整个教会的力量,从福音新传,向万民(ad gentes) 传教。任何基督信徒,任何教会机构都不能逃避这责任。」(n.3)

这里我们只是提纲系领地陈述福音新传的神学原则,而不进入具体的解释。

福音只有一个,就是基督所宣讲、见证和实现的那一个。

它一直在人类历史中不断临场。新传不是指另一个新的福音,而是避免用不合时宜的方式去「重传」,但要「新」的方式。新是指一系列的新处境。新的交谈,就是说:福音令人得到自由、释放和爱,这要求教会不断陪伴人和福音作交谈。新的现实就是说:福音点亮人的自我明瞭,因为人的自我明瞭是接受基督的前奏,为此,教会不断学习人的各种特性。新的途径,就是说:福音建立人类合一的路,这要求教会简易、自如、真诚的沟通,并以新的热忱作见证;也就是说:福音既能发挥人的潜能,教会就要不断学习聆听和相信。

救主只有一个,就是基督。

整个福音新传建基在耶稣的救恩和使命基础上。祂展示了救恩奥迹的神性幅幅度,就是:天父的爱、基督的启示和圣神的降临。祂又实现救恩奥迹的人性幅度,就是:人的奥秘在基督内得到解释,人的成长在基督内得到动力,人的缺陷在基督内得到补足,人的极限在基督内得到超越。

传道者只有一个,就是基督。

教会只是参与和延续祂的使命。基督使命是实现圣父拯救众生的意愿和行动,并从圣父那里为我们赚得圣神的动力。教会以圣神为继续基督使命的灵魂,领受宣讲和付洗的谕令,成为天人相遇标记与途径,使天国扩展到世界的园地。

后现代的关怀是「多元化」,而它的挑战是「分化」,「相对化」和「虚无化」。我们想要强调的是:在照顾人类多元的需要之余,基督藉着教会使人类合而为一,就如「父在子内,子在父内」一般。福音新传在教会的整体使命中是产生统一力量重要的一环。

3. 天主教教理

教理讲授不但不能与教会的整体的牧民行动、传教事业分开,还是福音新传中重要的一环。梵二之后,这一点更是所有主教们在行事表上的重要事项。1966年荷兰率先推出新的教理,当时举世哗然,因为可争论的地方实在太多。其他国家也先后编订新的教理,但争论并没有终止。这些认争论指出教理讲授的多元化已遇到信仰分化的危机。

梵二既已肯定「圣言降生」的原则,福音须植根地方文化,而地方文化又是多元的,福音只有一个,那么教理讲授必注定是多元化而又统一的。谁来说出甚么是多元的和甚么是统一的?理论上是教会。换言之,教理讲授就地方教会而论是多元的,就普世教会而论则是统一的。这问题又牵涉到个别教会和普世教会的实际关系。在荷兰(文化中) 所宣认的信仰,在香港也被认同吗?在宗徒时代所宣认的信仰,在90年代他认同吗?这认同须蕴含信仰的整体性和准确性,礼仪圣事的共通性和伦理行为的共同判准。

在这些年间各地的教会在多元和统一的张力下正如履薄冰,甚至是处于一种矛盾的心理状态中。在这情况下,教宗在1985年为纪念梵二闭幕20周年召集了特殊世界主教会议。那时礼仪已普遍革新了,东西方天主教教会的法典也完成。大方针既已定位,教会须致力福音新传来更新自己。在这气氛下,与会者表达了共同的愿望,就是要编一本教理或一本综合全部天主教信理和伦理训导的摘要,使之成为各地编订教理或综合摘要的一个参照本。

1992年终于出现了《天主教教理》(下文简称《教理》)。它是1992年6月25日教宗若望保禄二世批准的,同年12月8日隆重地颁布。教宗在推荐这本书时,称之为「梵二训导最完备和最成熟的果实」,「乃近年教会一大事件」,「一份珍贵的礼物」,他在宗座宪令《信仰宝库》(Fidei Depositum = FD) 用了罕有的词句申明这本书的价值:

「它是教会信仰和天主教会教义的表达,按照圣经、宗徒传统及教会训导证实和解释的……我公认它是一本有效的工具,并钦定为权威的版本,为促进教会的共融,一个传扬信仰的确定准则。」(FD4)

《教理》的前言也申明:

「这本教理的目的是要将天主教教义主要和基本的内容,不论是有关信理或伦理的事宜,在梵二和整体教会传统的光照下,作一个有组织和系统的陈述。它首要的泉源资料是圣经、教父、礼仪和教会训导。它的功能已被确定为『各地方编订教理或综合摘要的一个参照本。』」(《教理》11)

下文我们将会描写这书的编辑过程,从而带出《教理》的「至公性」(catholicity);然后论述贯通全书的脉络,从而带出人生并不分成四个部份,而是活生生的「奥迹」整合人生,使信仰与生活揉合一起,天主圣三与人契合,人们彼此共融,「合而为一」。

3.1 一个至公教会的制作

梵二之后,教宗保禄六世请圣职部编订《教理讲授指南》,并于1971年批准。后来它又成立了国际教理讲授委员会。1974年世界主教会议讨论福音传播,随后教宗1975年写了宗座劝谕《新世界中传福音》,强调教理讲授的重要性,呼吁1977年的第四届世界主教会议以此为主题。是次会议当今教宗若望保禄二世也以主教的身份参加了。保禄六世于1978年驾崩,新选的继承人若望保禄一世,又忽然被天主召回。继任的教宗若望保禄二世于1979年写了宗座劝谕《现时代的教理讲授》,说明教理讲授是儿童、青年及成人的信仰教育,其中包括以有组织的及系统的方式教授基督的道理(参阅《现时代的教理讲授》18)。

1985年12月1日在特别世界主教会议中,与会者在最后的议案中提出:

「极多的人(valde comuniter) 表白这个渴望,就是整理一套教理或综合摘要(catechismus seu compendium),论述一切有关信理和伦理的事宜,作为每一个地区制作本地教理或教理摘要的参考。这本书的在教理表达方面应以圣经和礼仪为主,同时又须写出一套健康的教理适用于现代人的生活。」

1986年7月10日教宗成立专责委员会以J. Ratzinger枢机为主席,共12位成员,都是枢机和主教:

枢机:W. Wakefield Baum, B.F. Law, S.D. Lourdusamy, J. Tomko, A. Innocenti, J. Sanchez

主教:J.P. Schotte, J. Stroba, F.S. Benitez Avalos, G.P. Noujeim, I. De Souza, H.S. D'Souza.

编辑小组:7位主教

 J.E. Estepa Llaurens, J. Honore, A. Maggiolini, J. Medina Estevez, D. Konstant, E.E. Karlich, W. Levada.

书记部工作人员:A. Bovone, C. von Schonborn, R. Martinelli, Ana Fernandez.

经历九个初稿

1. 1987.2 adumbratio schematis《概括大纲》

2. 1987.12 avant-projet《计划初稿》

3. 1989.2 projet《计划》

4. 1989.11 progetto revisto(projet revise)《修订计划》

5. 1991.3 textus emendatus《修订版》

6. 1991.5 testo predefinitivo《确定前版》

7. 1991.8 testo predefinitivo-versione correta《确定前版之修定》

8. 1991.12 progetto definitive《确定计划》

9. 1992.2 testo definitivo《确定版》

三段主要的工作期

第一段是由1987年1月到1988年10月,主要是委员会按1985年特殊世界主教会议的决定,写出计划,再经编辑小组正式编写为《修订计划》。

从委员会第一次会议1986年11月,就提出这教理分三卷:信理,圣事和诫命。行文须赋予圣经、教父、礼仪和教会训导的佐证,要顾及现代文化和教会传统的语言,并附加一个教会词汇(glossary) 为解释一些常用的基本概念。读者主要是主教?作为信仰的导师?及其他书写或批准地方教区教理书的人士。目的是为地方教会写一本「参照本」,方便不同的教会按读者的需要编纂教理课本。

编辑小组的主教们便开始工作,后来为协调整本书的风格和监察工作的进度便请了道明会会士von Schonborn来负责,他后来成为维也纳教区助理主教。

第二段是由1989年10月到1990年9月,主要是将整项计划呈交给各地的教会以作谘询,收集意见后,便辑成《修订版》(textus emendatus)。

在1989年11月,以《修订计划》作为蓝本,赋予英、法、意、德、西的译文,谘询所有的天主教主教和主要的大学、学院和修院。收到的回应共有938个,16个来自宗座部门,797个来自个别主教,28个来自主教团,23个来自295不同的主教组别(1092位),12个来自神学学院,62个来自其他的组别。这些回应大体上贺成这个《修订计划》,26.8%认为非常好,51.1%好,12.1%满意但有些保留,约有10%不赞成。提供要修订的条文共有24,000份(modi)。

从地理分布来说,这些回应有40%来自南、北美,31%来自欧洲,3%来自非洲,15%来自亚洲,11%来自大洋洲和澳洲。

审阅的工作也相当繁复,请很多神父和神学生帮忙。他们将意见分为:1) 总体性的,2) 结构里有关每个部份的,3) 特殊的主题。过程中先作一个客观的分析(radiography)为报导主教们的意见,其后辨别意见的份量(discernment),最后衡量其他变换的可能性(alternatives)。然后针对下列四项而改善教理的工作:

1. 有关圣经的运用,要征询多些圣经学者的意见,但陈述时要以「启示宪章」为原则,即以圣经为灵魂,避免过分学术的风格。

2. 有关伦理的部份,因意见特别多,故此首先要注意人在德行和恩宠下的成长。为特殊伦理部份,则要避免形式化,可按照十诫的次序陈述,但应将之视为爱主爱人的双重诫命,着重福音真福精神,并要符合现代的处境。

3. 有关「天主经」部份,除了作解释外,也须推演出基督徒祈祷的特色,成为本书的第四部份。

4. 原罪及成义的问题也要多作考虑。

第三段是由1990年9月到1992年12月,主要是将收集的意见,按部就班地编辑成《天主教教理》。

编辑小组将原先的三卷伸至四卷,即:信理,礼仪圣事,伦理和祈祷。这分法也与脱理腾的罗马教理本相同。卷一,卷二和卷四都先后完成。圣经的引用也由学者们再重读和调整。卷三的伦理部份,还须注意一些特殊的地方,如:死刑,和平,战争,社会正义的问题等。最后,在每段的道理加上「撮要」,方便人们记诵。

1991年5月的《确定前版》(testo predefinito)及1992年2月的《确定版》(testo definito)就是按以上原则写成,并在委员会及编辑小组来回数次,经几番的修改,顾及编辑和印刷的问题等。最后在1992年2月14日委员会投票并一致通过,稿件命名为《天主教教理》过,并在1992年4月30日将最后的稿件呈交教宗审阅,1992年6月25日教宗批准,并在1992年10月11日(梵二开幕三十周年纪念) 写宗座宪令《信仰宝库》(Fidei Depositum = FD),推荐这书,1992年12月8日教宗隆重地颁布。

显而易见,透过这本《教理》教宗要行使伯多禄继承人的「一项特殊服务,提供给神圣而至公的教会、所有与宗座和平共融的个别教会」,就是「支持及肯定所有基督徒的信德(路22:32),甚至加强立足于同样宗徒信仰上的合一的联系。」(FD4) 教宗没有说「提供给神圣而至公的教会『及』所有与宗座和平共融的个别教会」,是为表明普世教会并非是个别教会数量上的总和,而是一个以基督为首的奥体。两者之间具有密切的「相互性」,后者具体地按前者的肖像而活现,前者则因后者的团结、集合而成(参阅《教会宪章》18.23)。当然这种相互性是建基在伯多禄的继承人(教宗) 和宗徒的继承人(主教们) 的密切关系上,亦即主教们团结一致的本质。那么,在信仰的训导上,他们要共同负起责任。事实上,可从两方面看出,这本《教理》书「正反映出主教们团结一致的本质,也显示教会是至公的。」(FD3),一方面在成书以前,曾广泛地征询各地的教会另一方面,书成以后教宗也要求主教们将之视为一个「确定和真正的参照本」(FD4)。

3.2 贯通全书的脉络

首先让我们从结构与编排的过程看,然后再集中在教理所陈述的奥迹。

3.2.1 结构与编排

在最初的计划,已提出全书结构的问题,当时的问题,当时,当时委员会提议《教理》是分三卷:信理,圣事和诫命,后来在谘询各主教后才分四卷。其实,多玛斯曾编过一个教理讲授,其结构有三:信经,十诫和天主经。这分法也存留在基督教的传统中。《罗马教理》也是依循这分法编写的。但在信经部份论到:「我信诸圣相通功」时,就介入圣事的项目。由于那年代的圣事课题是相当广阔,甚至超过信经本身的篇幅,因此《罗马教理》便开另一新卷,专门讨论圣事。1992年《教理》的结构是仿效《罗马教理》的:信经,圣事,诫命和天主经分成四卷,即:信理,圣事,伦理和祈祷。

我们可比较两本教理的篇幅:

《罗马教理》1566

《教理》1992

信经 22%

信经 39%

圣事 37%

圣事 23%

诫命 21%

诫命 27%

天主经 20%

祈祷 11%

由此可见,教理分为三卷或四卷,乃按所处理的课题的篇幅而定,而课题的篇幅又有其历史因素,例如在1566年圣事的篇幅是最长的,在1992年则以信经为最长。其实,不论是多玛斯,《罗马教理》和92年的《教理》,它们的分法都是基于一个双重的信念:第一是相信天主圣三对人的爱,第二是相信天主使人有能力回应。按此看法,这两点是一个银元的两面,表达天人最终的关系。新编教理的四卷也是如此:天主的爱分别在信德中(卷一) 宣认,在圣事中(卷二) 庆祝,然而人的回应在生活上守诫命(卷三) 和作祈祷(卷四) 表达对天主的依从和赞颂。

这种编排也解决所谓「真理的等级」(The hierarchy of truths) 的问题。1989年间委员会将《修订计划》呈交给全世界的主教作谘询时,其中一项正是真理等级的问题,受到自北美神学家的最大批评。其实,在问题的背后是卷三伦理的部份。教会的伦理训导自1967年的《人类生命》始,都是反潮流,比一般社会厘定的标准严谨得多。一些神学家,信友,甚至牧者却以这些训导不是隆重地钦定的信理为由,而另设较宽松的标准或理论。可是,真理的等级往往与确定的方式(平常训导或隆重训导) 无关。委员会恨慎重地处理这点,后来由主席Ratzinger在1990年10月27日世界主教会议中向大家解释,因为真理的等级并不在于确凿性的程度,故此,在新编的教理中,无须亦不希望在每条道理之后加上:钦定信理(de fide definita),信理(de fide),一般意见(sententia communis) 等的注明。每条教理确凿性的程度是由铺陈的结构、方式、及所引用的权威而浮现出来的。

训导的意义就是遨讲信友顺从真理。在今日实际的环境中,这邀请是诉诸信友的信德。当一些伦理的训导是难于实践时,并非以它的确定方式作为接纳或不接纳的准则,而是以信德的眼光来接受。为此,《教理》卷三的伦理部份需要有卷一和卷二的光照。

此外,还有两个神学理由使信经和圣事先于诫命的。首先,「成义」是必须预设信德和恩宠的,脱理腾的神学是着重「成义」的恩宠是直接与圣事有关,恩宠是首要的,因为恩宠就是以圣神的恩赐充满整个人,赋予超性之德,使之成为新的受造物。故此,在劝勉人守诫命前,先要使人知道基督徒的尊位。其次,只有在恩宠的扶助下,守诫命才能脱离旧约法律主义,而达至新约的真福精神。

3.2.2 奥迹和救恩史

虽然《教理》没有明文说明贯穿全书的脉络,但是宗座宪令《信仰的宝库》已指出:

「四卷是互相联系的:基督徒的奥迹是宣信的对象(卷一),我们在礼仪行动中庆祝奥迹,而奥迹又藉此恩临人间(卷二),奥迹的恩临是为阐明和扶持天主子女的行径(卷三),奥迹成为我们祈祷的基础,祈祷最优惠的表现是『我们的天父』,此外,祈祷又是我们祈求、赞颂和作代祷的对象(卷四)。」(FD4)

这里所说的基督徒奥迹就是圣保禄所说的「从创世以来,即隐藏在创造万有的天主内的奥秘(oikonomia tou mysteriou)。」(弗3:9) 希腊文oikonomia是指家务的管理,从而引申到安排、策划、领导、治理。保禄对这意念有不同的用法:首先是应用在宗徒之职,按天主的计划而传福音(哥1:25;格前9:17),第二种用法是与奥迹连在一起的,就是指天主的计划和在历史上实现并在基督身上总合的过程(参阅弗1:9-10)。中文可将oikonomia译成救恩计划或救恩史。换言之,这奥迹或救恩计划就是贯通全书的脉络。

卷一在《教理》中可称为启示的救恩计划,是以基督奥迹为高峰的。它是以宗徒信经的形式铺陈,内含天主圣三的结构:我信圣父,我信圣子,我信圣神。整个救恩计划只有一个源头和一个终向,在时空的场所中呈现,其中有些是事件,为整个救恩史是极为重要的,例如:创造,安排成引领,基督的救赎工程,圣神在教会内的更新。

卷二亦阐明同样的救恩计划的观念:在教会内这计划就变成圣事庆典上的救恩计划。换言之,整个救恩史已浓缩在基督奥迹中,并已达至圆满,而现在礼仪庆典将同样的奥迹渐渐扩散和渗透到生活上,因此,对时辰、场所、标记、圣事和圣仪等都需要有所解释。

余下的部份是说明这救恩计划实现在个人或团体的生活的,就需要有行动的方针和恩宠。第三卷主要是谈及诫命作为踏上「爱」的道途。第四卷则解释基督徒的祈祷。

再进一步看,救恩史是以圣三奥迹和基督奥迹为核心,两个奥迹只能识别但从不分开,两者合而为一。在卷一宣认信仰的部份中,对象是天主圣三伟大的爱情,但这爱情是在圣子降生成人的事件中达至圆满的实现,确立了天主「自我通传」的基础,以至每个人只要信从基督就能享有天主圣三的爱情和生命:

「教理教授的核心主要是指向一个人,就是纳匝肋人耶稣,天父的独生子(…)。只有祂才可带领吾人在圣神中达到天父之爱,并分受天主圣三的生命。」(《现时代的教理讲授》5)

基督生平的奥迹有:出生、童年、隐居、传教、苦难、死亡和复活,但陈述这些奥迹并非为了效法基督做一个完美的人而已,而是邀请吾人与祂结合一起。

「一切基督活过的经验,无非是因为祂想令我们可在祂内活出来和祂在我们内活出来。『藉着天主子降生成人的事实,在某程度上祂已和每一个人连系着』。我们奉召和祂合而为一,作为祂的肢体,祂就将自己肉身上为我们所活过的通传给我们,并以此作为我们的典范。」(《教理》521)

就是在这个「祂身体的肢体」的角度下,《教理》陈述卷二圣事篇。

「……基督生平的年个奥迹皆构成圣事恩宠的基础,致使基督现在可藉祂教会的仆人在圣事中赋予恩宠,因为『一切在我们救主身上有形可见的都通传到祂的奥迹中。』」(《教理》1115)

《教理》亦引用极富动感的圣经言词来描写这个事实:

「从基督身躯『流露出来的力量』(路5:17;6:19;8:46) 时常都是充满生气和赋予生命力的,亦即是圣神在祂身体?教会?所行的一切活动,这也是圣事的行动.即在新而永久的盟约中所完成的『天主杰作』。」(《教理》1116)

今天基督的圣事就是将祂生平的奥迹伸延到我们的生活中,使我们与祂合而为一。与基督合而为一就是进入天主圣三的生命中。基督徒的召叫就在于此,而他的回应则有赖其「信德」和「信德的圣事」。

卷三的第一部份是「人被召在圣神之内生活」,其内容涉及伦理的基础。这里的起点是「召叫」,由于人是按天主的肖像而受造,故此他只有追寻天主,才可得到真正的幸福;换言之,他是奉召过「真福」的生活。然而,又由于他是天主的肖像,故此具有理智和意志,那么追寻天主亦须通过人的明瞭和自由的抉择才能达到,这就是基督徒伦理的开端和基础。人的行为既有他的终向,便涉及其自由和明瞭,那么,人的行为自必然就有价值可言:有些行为是更能使人迈向完人的地位,这称为善行,另一些行为则会令人背道而驰,这称为恶行。判别行为善恶的功能则是人的良心。

假如没有天主诫命的指导,又没有天主恩宠的提升,人是没法对天主的召叫作出适度的回应。在「基本伦理」部份,不但兼容《论教会在现代世界牧职宪章》的思维形式,尤其以圣多玛斯的《神学大全》的思想作为主导的脉络。当然这是一个很有意识的选择,主要为调和天主的恩宠及人的自由,两者并不互相排斥,而是融汇为一股「合作的力量」(synergia),为使人走上「圣德」之路。

基督徒善恶的标准在乎天主的召唤,亦即那深深地嵌入他人性内的倾向,圣经称之为「天主肖像」的尊严。良心是天主呼唤的声音,驱使人从善避恶,十诫只是由天主启示的从善的指标,最终带人上爱天主,下爱世人。习惯行善的能力就成为德行,除了人性的德行还需要有天赋超性之德(theological virtue) 就是源于恩宠而孕育的信、望、爱三德。

「『基督徒啊!承认你的崇高的地位吧!因为你已被提升而分受天主的生命,不要再像以前自甘堕落,度不相称的生活,请牢记你是属于那个身体,是那个身体的肢体。』(教宗大良)」(《教理》1691)

「在信经部份中,我们已宣认天主在创世中对人的施恩是如何伟大;更甚者,就是在救赎和圣化工程中的大恩,一切经信德而宣认的,都要在圣事中获得实现:藉着圣事,信友们得以重生,成为天主子女(若1:12;3:1),分受天主的生命(伯后1:4)。基督徒因在信德中承认他们新的尊位,也就奉召成为天上的寓居,行动要相称于福音(斐1:27)。藉着圣事和祈祷,他们领受基督的恩宠和圣神的赐予,使他们有力量度一个新生。」(《教理》1692)

「『信德的奥迹其是伟大。』教会在宗徒信经中宣认这奥迹(卷一),在礼仪圣事中庆祝(卷二),为使信友的生活能肖似基督。在圣神内归光荣于天父(卷三)。因此,这奥迹要求信友们笃信、庆祝并要从中活出与天主密切的关系,和感受祂确是真实而又生活的。这个关系就是祈祷。」(《教理》2558)

卷三的第二部份是特殊伦理,按天主十诫的次序来铺陈。不过这些铺陈是导向人性和超性的德行,例如首要的三诫是指向信、望、爱三个超性之德和人性的实践宗教之德。第四诫是孝德,第六诫是贞德,第七诫是义德,第八诫是诚实之德,而第九、第十诫又再次提醒人整个十诫不是列出一系列的「禁制」成「必须」,而是福音中的「真福精神」。十诫总纲就是上爱天主,下爱世人(参阅《教理》2093)。

教会历史上有许多圣人圣女的见证,在教理书也多次引用他们的言行,作为加强在爱中侍主的动机。恩宠的福音需要有人用心火去点燃的。

小结

本文从拉丁美洲主教团的牧民关注,引申到普世教会的关注,就是要在现时建立基督的文化。因为后现代主义的兴起,不但使社会变得多元,而且也使宗教走向分化的危机。所以教会要重新宣告基督的福音作为人类彼此合一的动力。为配合福音新传,教会出版了新的《天主教教理》,为使每个个别教会在针对自己的文化,而制定一套本地的教理,大家都有统一的讯息,而不致使信仰分化,反而能推行福音新传,引领人类走上融合在圣三生活的道途上。
第十四卷 (1992-93年) 使命神学的二路
作者:张春申

应用中文想写这篇文章,首先遭到的是用词上的困难。「使命」究竟是否固定用来翻译西文的Mission吗?或者Mission是否固定地翻译为「使命」吗?教宗若望保禄二世的通谕Redemptoris Missio。果然译为「救主的使命」,但梵二的Decretum De Activitate Missionali Ecclesiae却译为,「教会传教工作」。同一Missio, Missionali中文却有两个译名「使命」与「传教」。

但更加令人混淆的,是中文「传教」一词,却又用来翻译别的西名:如Evangelization过去一再译为「传教」,至今有人仍旧延用。梵二另一法令De Apostolatu Laicorum,译为「教友传教法令」,可见「传教」已是西文Apostolate;其原意该是「使徒性能」。因此,每次中文「传教」一词出现,实在很难确定它究竟含有什么意义。它是中文教会的「宠物」,常常出现而难以端定内含。

主教团秘书处出版的「救主的使命」通谕译本的「绪言」,在仅有三号中,「传教」一词使用来翻译了三个西名Mission, Missionary, Apostolate,同时将Missionary Evangelization 翻译为「传播福音」。而且在通谕的译文中尚有「传教使命」出现(第23号第二、三节),令读者相当困扰。

为此,本文即使应用有关译本,一律不用「传教」,同时固定三个译名:「使命」Mission:「福传」或「传福音」Evangelization;「使徒性」Apostolate。三个名词彼此相连,但也有自身的涵意。如此,过去的传教神学将是使命神学。

本文题目是使命神学的二路,即「天主的使命」神学与「教会的使命」神学,以下简称天主使命学与教会使命学。分为四部分来研讨:

一.二路使命学的简介

二.教会使命学的意义

三.天主使命学的意义

四.二路使命学的平议

二路使命学可由教宗若望保禄二世「救主的使命」通谕绪言中的一段话作为出发点:「梵二大公会议根据现代世局的需要,探求革新教会的生活和行动。大公会议强调教会的『使命本质』,将它以动态方式建基于『圣三性使命』自身之上」。(第1号第二节)。所谓圣三性使命(Trinitarian Mission) 即本文所指天主的使命,具体而论,即为基督的使命。可见教会的使命与天主的使命密切相关,问题便是对此关系有不同说法。

一.二路使命学的简介

天主使命学是由圣三的内在关系,说明人类历史救恩旨意的完成。圣父是救恩根源,派遣圣言与圣神实践救恩。圣父是使命的根源,圣言与圣神被派遣,即领受使命。圣言成为血肉居住人间,无限量地拥有圣神,十字架上天主的使命业已完成,但尚未全然实现人间,因为人类历史继续进行。所以复活的基督与祂由父派遣来的圣神,继续实践救恩使命于宇宙及人类历史中间。至于教会则是救恩的标志与工具,基本上只是参与圣三性的使命。这是天主使命学的要点;也是本文所指使命学的一路,虽然并不否认教会的使命。

教会使命学强调教会的生活与行动,建基于圣三性的使命,但耶稣升天与圣神降临之后,从此救恩使命落在教会身上。是它由耶路撒冷开始,直到天涯地角,今世终结,实现救恩使命而运筹一切。基督藉圣神的天天同在,仅似一般性的照顾,虽然偶有特殊功能。这是使命学的第二路。

二路使命学具有彼此相连的关系,但表达使命之于历史中的实践却有不同,有关教会的角色显然有别。

二.教会使命学的意义

笼统地说,梵二大公会议持的是教会使命学路线。鉴于大公会议的主题是教会,不难了解其使命学的倾向。这里仅自梵二「教会的使命工作」法令来探讨,而且集中于第一章论教理原则。

1. 教会的使命与圣三性使命

表面来看,这一章以三号(2,3,4) 论圣三性使命,以五号(5,6,7,8,9) 论教会的使命。资料的多寡显出大公会议的路线。而且圣三性使命似乎仅是前导或基础,教会的使命始是教理原则的重点。第5号有一段话相当清楚表达二者之间的衔接:

「……祂也派遣了宗徒们到天下去,……从此传播信仰及基督的救恩,就成了教会的责任,……」(第一节)

这段引证的话前面是叙述基督召叫宗徒建立教会,后面便是肯定圣统性的教会继承来自基督的使命。教会自己是使命主题,处于「从此」以后的阶段。予人感觉教会是在继续使命;至于圣三性的使命以已「结束」,若有作为,可说偶有的事。

2. 教会的使命与基督的使命

如果我们把教会的使命与基督的使命的关系说明,问题将更清楚。

教会的使命,遵照基督的命令与在圣神的鼓励下,实现于各民各族。它将继续下去,在历史中发挥基督自己完成的使命。(第5号第一节) 可说二个使命相连而非合一。此又可从天主圣神的角色来澄清。梵二法令并不直接指出天主圣神在耶稣被遣降世以及公开福传时的行动。(第3号第二节) 反而提出天主圣神由复活基督遣派,作为教会的同工。祂把整个教会「团结在共融和服务精神内,用圣统阶级和各种奇能伸恩,建设教会」。(教会第4号) 祂又把基督自己的使命精神,投入信友心中。(第4号) 因此,基督完成自己的使命;圣神与教会实现基督完成了的救恩于人类历史之中。基督是完成者,教会是实现者;二者的使命不同,但互相连结。

梵二并未将圣三性使命单独发挥,只是为了阐释教会的使命之来源或基础而提及的。

3. 教会使命的主体与工作

说明了教会的使命与天主的使命的关系之后,可将梵二法令对教会的使命之内涵加以理清。

3.1 使命的主体

教会按照基督的命令领受属于自己的使命,(第5号第一节) 因此旅途的教会本质上使命性的。(第2号第一节) 虽然如此,大公会议特别强调实现使命的责任是「司铎所辅助的主教团,和伯铎的继承人,教会的最高司牧,共同由宗徒们继承下来的」。(第5号第一节;参阅第4号;第6号第一节) 使命的教会性因此更为显着,面对天主的使命,甚至显出「分段」与「延续」的张力。

3.2 实现使命的工作

有关实现使命工作,「教会的使命工作」法令,说明得相当周到,因此需要分别介绍。

3.2.1 属于使命特性的工作

「这种使命的本旨,就是在教会尚未生根的民族或人群中宣讲福音,培植教会」。(第6号第三节)「教会派遣的福音宣传者,走遍全世界,以宣讲福音,在尚未信仰基督的民族及人群中,以培植教会为职责,这种特殊工作普通即称为『使命』」。(同上) 在以上引证的法令第6号第三节中,三次指出用于使命的特性工作是宣讲福音与培植教会。

3.2.2 间接属于使命的工作

「暂时无法直接立即宣传福音,这时奉使者至少可以也应该耐心地、明智地、有信心提供基督仁爱慈善的证据,这样为主作铺路工作」。(第6号第五节) 这便是传统所说的信仰作证。由此可了解为什么有直接传福音与间接传福音之分。生活见证并非使命工作本身。

3.2.3 与属于使命工作有关的工作

「所以在外教人中的使命工作,和在信友之间的牧灵工作;以及促成基督徒之间的合一运动,有所不同,可是两种工作却与教会的使命工作有着密切关系……好能在外教人前对吾主基督作出一致的证据。」(第6号第六节) 合一运动也是信仰作证,但与使命工作不同。

对于上面所说三种工作,尤其第一与第二种工作,「教会使命工作」法令第二章论使命的事业本身,更加详细发挥,重点在于宣讲福音以及集合与形成教友团体。由此也可以见出教会使命论的偏向「教会中心主义」,它的使命特性是宣讲福音而建立教会自身。至于使命有关的其它工作,也都以此为归向。因此便无法见出使命有任何人类与宇宙向度。

4. 教会使命的存在理由与其需要

教会的使命是为了天主的救恩意愿。(第2号第一节) 耶稣基督是天人之间惟一中保,除祂之外没有救恩,所以接受教会的宣讲必须归附祂,藉着圣洗和称为基督身体的教会连结在一起。教会是得救必经之路。「虽然天主有其独自知道的方法,能够引导那些非因自己过失而不认识基督的人,得到为悦乐天主无可或缺的信德」。(同上)

以上四段可说是梵二教会使命学的基本意义,其重点在于教会似乎「掌握」使命,虽然「有时圣神还明显地走在宗徒们的前面,同时又不断地以各种方式伴随指挥宗徒的工作。」,(第4号) 但使命是教会在实践的,圣神「有时」,或者不断地「伴随」而已。

三.天主使命学的意义

梵二「教会的使命工作」法令颁布二十五年之后,教宗若望保禄二世重申教会的使命承诺,发表「救主的使命」通谕。为我们的研讨而论,是要指出通谕代表的使命神学第二路。其实梵二之后的简短神学历史,已由教会学转向基督学,那么使命神学随着同样方向而转受,似乎也是理所当然的。我们愿意扼要自通谕抽出天主使命学的要点。

1. 天主的使命与教会

首先,「救主的使命」通谕的首三章,其每章命名和内容已显出使命神学的转向。第一章:耶稣基督?唯一救主;第二章:天主之国;第三章:圣神?使命的首要行动者。这三章可谓天主使命学的教理基础。标题不说教会,因为它不是使命的首要行动者。

1.1 救恩与教会的使命

值得在此先提出的,通谕对于教会的使命具有一个层次:首先是全面性的使命(Universal Mission),其中含有向万民的使命(Missio ad gentes)。下面将更多讨论。不过使命整体出于天主救恩的旨意。

教宗若望保禄二世面对今日教会神学界的不同言论,强力地肯定基督救恩的必需性(教会:第一章),但此非本文所愿处理的。

1.2 救恩与基督的使命以及教会的使命

基督的普世救恩源于祂恩宠、真理与启示的使命(救主:第5号第三节)。通谕的整整第二章,以「天主之国」来落实救恩,而耶稣基督的「蒙召」便是为了这个目的,所以祂的使命便在于此:「因为我被派遣,正是为了这事。」(路4:43) 通谕之所以详细说明「天主之国」的全面,也是为了说明教会使命的全面目标。(救主:第20号第四、五节) 不过,「救恩的最先受益者是教会。基督以自己流血的代价为自己赢得了教会,使教会成为他在世界救恩中的同工。当然,基督住在教会内。她是他的新娘,他使她成长,他藉着她贾践他的使命。」(救主:第9号第一节)

1.3 救恩与天主圣神的使命以及故会的使命

通谕第三章并不注意圣神的被遣派或使命,但丰富地详述圣神在使命中的临在与行动:在耶稣基督的使命中;在宗徒的使命以及教会的使命中。

「圣神的确是教会使命的全面之主要行动者。祂的行动在向万民的使命中(Missio ad gentes) 是杰出显明的……」,(救主:第21号第二节) 教宗相当清楚地注意使命的层面。我们毋庸仔细地随着通谕长篇大论天主圣神在宗徒与教会使命中的各种行动;但值得特别注意的是圣神临在和活跃于每一时空的事实,(救主:第25号第一节) 以及它与教会的关系。按照通论的思想,天主圣神一方面的普遍活动(不仅影响个人,而且也影响社会、历史、人民、文化和宗教的活动),和另一方面的个别活动,即在教会中的活动是不能分开的。原来,「当祂在一切个人和民族身上灌输和扩展祂的恩典时,祂引导教会去发现这些恩典,透过交谈去培育和接纳这些恩典。」(救主:第29号第三节) 这里可见教会的使命附属于天主的使命。(参阅救主:第20号第三节)

1.4 圣三性使命与教会的使命

「救主的使命」通谕指出「大公会议强调教会的『使命本质』,以活跃方式建基于圣三性使命自身之上」,(救主:1号) 但它以三章篇幅发挥天主的救恩和圣三性使命,同时将教会的使命附属其上;处处显出天主使命的主动性,教会使命仅是回应而已。教会使命或者可说是天主使命的标志和圣事。这也是我们认为「救主的使命」通谕倾向于天主使命学的缘由。

2. 使命的途经

教会以工作或行动来实践使命,所谓使命的途径便是不同方法、道路,为了达到天国来临之目的。通谕第五章论使命的途径,与第二章论教会为天国服务(第20号) 应该互相比较,因此再次见出教会的使命与基督的使命之间的连系。

2.1 不同途径

使命途径可以归为三类:传报(Kerygma)、共融(Koinonia) 与服务(Diakonia)。通谕相当详细举出不同的工作。

1.传报:见证(福传的最初形式)、初期宣讲、归依和洗礼。

2.共融:形成地方教会与合一运动、教会基层团体(福传的动力)、福音降入民族文化(本地化)。

3.服务:宗教交谈(与其他宗教的兄弟姊妹交谈),以塑造良知来促进发展(学校、医院、出版社、大学与实验农场等)。

2.2 不同途径与教会使命

我们已经二次表示通谕所指的教会使命之层次:全面性使命与向万民的使命。事实上,教宗相当重视此一区分,一方面在今日世界中,他强调向万民的使命有其特殊重要性,另一方面在他广阔的视野中,教会使命该是圣三性使命的标志。因此有关向万民的使命,教宗通谕应用了整个第四章。他保持它的特殊价值,也如同梵二「教会的使命工作法令」一段,承认「它的特性是宣扬基督及其福音,建立地方教会和提倡天国价值。向万民的使命的特质在于对『非基督徒』。」(救主:第34号第一节) 这即是途径中的传报与形成教会团体。

不过教宗也知道今日神学界,「有人提出质问,谈论特定的使命活动或特别谈到『使命地区』是否适当,或者我们应该谈论单一使命环境下的单一的使命,各地皆然。」(救主:第32号第二节) 这段话的上文是有关今日世界的流动性,以致虽能规定传统所说的只有「非基督徒」的「传教区」,但无法不能不容纳天主使命学的观点(参阅32号第三节),可能也因此使通谕第五章,将所有使命途径与其工作:传报、共融、服务平置一起;同时放宽向万民的使命之视野,这将在下文中解释。

2.3 使命的不同途径与为天国的服务

第五章中,通谕已经从教会全面性的使命、一个使命来提供不同途径;其中有的显明是向万民的使命之工作,但已引入全面性使命之中。的确通谕对于宣讲福音仍旧另眼相看;(参阅救主:第44号第一节) 但我们不拟在此讨论,另有文章专为处理此一问题。(参阅:使命途径的整合,《善导周刊》81年8月23日) 无论如何,不同途径的所有工作都是为了实践同一使命;通谕在第五章中很有意思地用了「福传使命」(Evangelizing Mission) 一词,(第55号第一节) 意谓使命是为福传。至于福传,实以天主之国为对象。因此我们可说所有使命途径的工作旨在天主之国的来临,而天国来临的实现之形态是众多的,(第20号第二节) 因为使命途径的工作不同之故。比如:宣讲、归依与洗礼使人在教会团体形态中经验天国来临;至于宗教交谈的效果则在双方互信相识形态中经验天国来临。二种工作却都是教会使命的途径,(参阅救主:20号) 都为天国来临服务,然而天国来临的形态却由于途径不同而各有分别。

以上两大段是天主使命学的要点,圣三之间的派遣与使命,长存于宇宙与人类的救恩史中,其完成是逾越奥迹,其继续不断实现主要是藉基督的教会,因此而有教会的使命。然而教会的使命仅是天主的使命之「圣事」,有形可见的标志。此使教会的使命超越自己的制定界线,具有宇宙与人类向度,同时肯定使命途径的广度。至于向万民的使命仅是它全面性使命的途径之传报而已,(参阅下文第四部份) 虽然它有特殊的意义。

四.二路使命学平议

根据二、三两部分的介绍,我们认为梵二大公会议,或梵二「教会的使命工作」法令倾向于教会使命学,至于「救主的使命」通谕倾向于天主使命学,现在稍作比较。

1. 两者的差别

梵二大公会议所说的教会使命实乃通谕中的向万民的使命;它是相当以教会为中心的。不过在通谕第四章:「向万民的使命之广大幅员」中,教会一方面肯定向万民的使命保有价值,另一方面却十足显出天主使命学的倾向,提出所谓向万民的使命之变故:甲、地域界限;乙、新世界和新社会现象;丙、文化领域。(第37,38号) 于是使命活动必须加以注视的:「例如:致力于和平、发展和人民的解救,个人和民族的权利;尤其是少数人的权利;妇女和儿童的进展;维护受造的世界。这些也是需要以福音的真光照亮的领域。」(救主:第37号第14节) 这已经远远超过梵二教会使命学的远景。也可说是教宗的天主使命学对向万民的使命所具有的发展。

2. 使命的工作

梵二的教会使命的工作,严格而论只是宣讲福音与培植教会,看来好似教会来自耶稣的命令去实现自己。它是使命的主体,其圣经基础更属对照福音与宗徒大事录。圣三性使命更近若望福音,因此教会全面性使命途径与工作众多面广阔,参与了天主的使命。

由于两种不同的使命学,教会的心灵境界也有不同;一是比较以教会为中心,另一是比较以基督或以圣三为中心。一般说来,也会影响使徒工作者的胸怀。

3. 福传意义的变化

梵二「教会使命的工作」法令,将属于使命特性工作限于宣讲福音与培植教会,其他如所谓信仰见证、爱德表现只作间接福传,而牧灵与合一工作已不视为使命工作。至于通谕不但提出「福传使命」,而将上述所有一切工作视为使命途径,基本上已经不再有直接福传与间接福传之分,这是应当特别注意的。为具体接受使命而献身的人,在信仰经验上也是很有关系的。

同时也应当特别注意,「福传」这个圣经名词在现代教会中的意义,实际已具演变。梵二大公会议时代,福传或传播福音实指宣讲,传报基督的死亡与复活,以及祂的生平。一九七五年教宗保禄六世「在新世界中传福音」劝谕中,福传的内容已经兼有人性解放与发展。而教宗若望保禄二世的「救主的使命」通谕中,福传与福传使命如上所述已经超过传报的界线;不过通谕偶而尚有接近梵二的表达方式。而一九九一年,万民福传圣部与宗教交谈宗座委员会共同发表的「交谈与宣讲」文件中,已经清楚分别指出「福传」的不同意义。这是研究使命学者都有所知的。

4. 结论

派遣、使命与福传是教会大众都熟悉与应用的名词,三者的具体意义根据二路使命学而有差异。本文之作企图指出差异的来源,由于应用者可能早已采取一路使命学而并不清楚意识到。

天主圣三使命学在梵二之后逐渐多为应用,这与将近三十年来神学反省的变化有关,同时也与教会的生活与行动有关。大概说来,今天教会对于使命的意识,更为自我超越,具有人类与宇宙向度。
第十四卷 (1992-93年) 圣奥斯定「忏悔录」的生命哲学
作者:周景勋

一.引子

圣奥斯定在「天主之城」卷八第一章中,明确地说:「真正的哲学家就是爱天主者。」

「爱天主者」必然地寻觅「真理」而离开「恶」。圣奥斯定在公元二八七年归依「基督」,离弃自己放荡不羁的生活后,对「真理」之热爱,可从「忏悔录」书中卷三第六章第十节得悉:「唉!真理,永远的真理,我从心灵的最深处追念你,深深地向往你。」因为:「我所渴望的,不是那些美妙的受造之物,而是『真理』--是你的本身--『永不变易.永不晦蚀』(雅各伯书1:17) 的你。」

为能了解对「真理」如饥似渴之追念心情,人必须先有信德,才能了解「真理」,以及存立在「真理」之内。在圣奥斯定的思想中:信仰与哲学是不能分离的,哲学之所以能完全实现,需要信仰的启发;或者说:哲学是植根于信德中,才能觅得生命的终极,达到圆满的幸福。研究圣奥斯定哲学思想的专家「盖雷(F. Cayre)」说:「所谓哲学,即是指有关思想和生活所依重之原理的自然知识。为能瞭解奥义,需要有信德;奥斯定根据依撒意亚书7:9那句话:『除非你们相信,你们便不会瞭解。』(思高圣经版本译:『假使你们不肯相信,你们必然不能存立。』) 常喜欢说:『相信吧!好能使你瞭解天主的话』;但是在相信以前,先要理解字句本身的自然意义,因此他说:『理解我的话吧!好使你能相信;相信吧!好能使你瞭解天主的话。』(证道集四十三篇第九节)」(1) 圣奥斯定的观点认为:哲学是使人幸福的智慧,真理就是幸福的基础,而人若只依靠自己的理性,是找不到真理的,换言之,即达不到幸福。圣奥斯定肯定说:「若问单凭理性,不靠信德的扶助,人是不能达到真理的。」此乃奥斯定以纯哲学的观点驳斥怀疑主义的证据。(2)

事实上,圣奥斯定所追求的「真理」就是「天主本身」,所希望达到的「幸福」也是「天主本身」。所以他在「忏悔录」卷一第一章作了断言性的导言:「因为你创造我们是为了你,我们的心得不到你,就不能安息在你的怀抱中,便摇摇地不会安宁。」其实,这启导之言也就是「忏悔录」的结语,因为圣奥斯定曾说过:「我那十三卷忏悔录,是赞美使我幸和不幸的正义慈善的天主的,能使人的思想和感情转向天主。」(3) 就是他在生命的寻觅中,最后觅得「生命终极」的天主所作的所言。

1. 盖雷著(刘俊余译),《奥斯定哲学导论》(F. Cayre, Initiation a la Philosophie de Saint Augustin),闻道出版社 民74年四月初版,第一章「何谓奥斯定哲学」20-21

2. 同上

3. 订正录卷二第六章

圣奥斯定的忏悔录乃写于公元四00年左右,由书名便可了解到:这是一本记载「在生命的堕落后,走向归依正途:『真理』」的书,可说是一本「生命哲学」的书。

订正录乃圣奥斯定晚年的一部书,共分二卷,大概是在四二六至四二七年间完成,按狄悦蒙(Tillemont) 的Memories, Vol. 13 P. 1040之主张,则是在四二八年完稿的。

(参阅:包达理著(刘俊余译),《奥斯定思想概论》(Eugene Portalie, Saint Augustine),闻道出版社 民74年10月初版,第二章「著作」第一节「自传及书札」48-50

二.「忏悔录」是一本「生命哲学」的书

倘若我们以一般人的心态阅读「忏悔录」,我们会觉得这是一本很动人的传奇性的「自传」。

倘若我们以文学的角度来评断的话,我们可以说「忏悔录」是一本感人肺俯的着名的「传记」。

倘若我们从天主教的灵修学上作衡量,则可以说「忏悔录」是一本引人成圣,与天主相晤相遇的灵修书。

倘若我们从人的心理角度上看,「忏悔录」实在是一本描绘一个人心理流灵和改变的好书。

但为我来说,我愿意以「哲学」的探讨来说明:「忏悔录」不单是一本传奇性的「自传」、一本着名的文学的「传记」、一本「灵修书」、一本「心理描述的好书」,它更是一本「生命哲学」的书。我们可以从「忏悔录」中看到圣奥斯定在自我生命中的生生变易的过程,以及思想上的演变过程,这演变或变易可以说是他整个人生活直截了当的流露--赤裸裸的心灵与思维的流露。我们在「忏悔录」中所遇到的,往往是一个投向生命终极的问题,其目的在于说明自我对生命幸福的探索。

圣奥斯定对生命的探索是永无止境的,直到他将自己的心安顿好,才能超越生命中所遇到的一切;这个安顿是经过了生命的挑战、挣扎、痛苦、……甜、酸、苦、辣、……。当他写「忏悔录」时,已经是为自己的生命找到了安顿的地方,故不是在年轻放荡不羁的时候写的,而是在归依主,有深切的宗教经验后所写的;这时,圣奥斯定大概是四十五岁左右(公元四OO年左右),已经是一位主教。因为圣奥斯定在写「忏悔录」时,乃是以回忆「自我生命由罪恶中跳跃出来,迈向信仰生命的升华」的方式写的,故「忏悔录」可以说是「回忆录」;圣奥斯定是以全心全灵回亿自我生命的演变,且在心灵得到安顿于天主怀抱中,藉信仰的光照而写的;故圣奥斯定在热切的心灵表达下,使他不得不以「祈祷」的方式不断地感谢和赞美所信仰的主。

因着「信仰的光照」,圣奥斯定在写「忏悔录」时,已经对自我生命的重整有深邃的反省;而生命的反省必定有一个完整的思想架构,才会有生命的反思和整合;这思想架构蕴藏着一个「哲学的体系」--是一个「生命哲学」的体系,藉以告诉人如何把握自己、超越自己,迈向生命的终极,使生命得以安顿下来。因此,我们可以在圣奥斯定的「忏悔录」的哲学体系中,看出他生命和思想的转化;这转化也是他心灵的变化,蕴含着一股灵修的力量,以引出他自己对天主的肯定和信仰;这肯定和信仰乃是心灵的太阳--天主所光照和启发的,发挥了他的「光照」或「启发」的学理。

三.「忏悔录」的剖释

「忏悔录」(Confessiones) 这个书名是以拉丁文定名的,有着特别的意义。若按字源上说,我们很容易认为是来自Confessio (忏悔、认罪),即指「承认或叙述自己的罪过」;然而,按圣奥斯定「忏悔录」的「生命哲学」之架构,不只是一个承认或叙述自己罪过的行为,而是一个把握生命、寻觅「真理」,使心灵得到安顿的归依历程;且在安顿后,有着一份喜悦的感恩和赞美;所以Confessiones乃是取自圣经上用的Confiteri (自白、忏悔、显露〈动心〉),即是指「一个人自惭形秽,承认并赞扬天主的德能,使人的思想、感情和心灵转向天主」的意义。(4)

藉着Confiteri的意义,我们可再深入地了解「忏悔录」的内涵,更肯定了「忏悔录」卷一第一章的重要性:「因为你创造我们是为了你,我们的心得不到你,就不能安息在你的怀抱中,便摇摇地不会安宁。」从这一节中,我们可以看到圣奥斯定「忏悔录」的「生命哲学」的骨架,就是清楚地说出了:

1. 「忏悔录」指向的终极对象(Object):「你」--「天主」

我们可从「忏悔录」卷十第一章找到答案:「由于你喜爱真理,所以「谁履行真理,谁就进入光明」(『然而履行真理的,却来就光明』思高圣经译:若望福音3:21)。因此,我愿意在你面前,用我的忏悔,在我心中履行其理;同时,在许多证人面前发表我(履行真理) 的文章。」此节中所言:「我愿意在『你』面」前的这个「你」所指的就是「天主」,也是「我们的心得不到『你』……便摇摇地不会安宁」所指的「你」是一样的。

2. 「忏悔录」的写作形式(Form)

圣奥斯定是以「心灵」的渴望「天主」写「忏悔录」的。因为在写「忏悔录」时,他已经从生命转化的归依历程中,将自己的「心灵」安顿在「天主」怀中;所以他更能以「心灵」的体验写出「心灵」话语。

在「忏悔录」卷十第二章中可清楚看到:「主,无论我怎样,你都知道,我完全将自己呈露在你面前。我已经说过,为什么我向你自讼自承。我向你诉心自白,不是用肉体的言语,而是用你所熟悉的心灵的言语和思想的呼声。」

3. 「忏悔录」的目的要旨(purpose)

「这是我的『忏悔(录)』的效果:我要显露(自白) 的不是我过去是怎样的人,而是现在的我。我不但在你面前,内心怀着既喜且惧、既悲叹又带着希望向你诉心自白,而且还要向那些与我有同样信仰、同样欢乐、同样死亡的人子们、或先或后与我在一起的国民和羁旅此世的朝圣者,以及陪伴我走生命历程的人诉心自白。」(卷十第四章) 圣奥斯定向所有的「人」表达自己的心意,实在希望告诉他们:「我的心灵已安顿在主内」。所以在「忏悔录」卷十第四章的最后,圣奥斯定说:「我是一个小孩子,但我有一位永生的天父常看守着我;他是最能帮助我的保护人;他生养找他顾护我。全能的天主,你是我的万善,在我重返你膝下之前,你是始终在我左右。因此,我将向你所命我事奉的人们吐露肺腑,不是追叙我过去如何,而是诉说我目前如何,今后如何;可是,我并不想这样判断自己。(格林多前书4:3,思高圣经译:『至于我,或受你们的审断,或受人间法庭的审断,为我都是极小的事,就连我自己也不审断自己。』) 希望读书也本着这种立场读我的『忏悔录』。」倘若人人读了「忏悔录」而能把握圣奥斯定那份寻觅真理,追求终极幸福,不断去恶归依天主的精神,在自己的生命历程中履行真理,也必然能进入光明中,将心灵安息于天主的怀里。



4. 包达理著(刘俊余译),《奥斯定思想概论》,闻道出版社 48-49

四.「忏悔录」几个「生命哲学」的课题

当我们阅读「忏悔录」时,我们不容易把握他的哲学思想,因为圣奥斯定在描述自己的思想中,不是按照纯逻辑的路线作发挥,而是以「心灵」的切望表达「心灵」的「生命哲学」的世界,所以才会将「生命终极」的断言放在导言上来说。因此,在我们阅读「忏悔录」时,必须先看准其所包容的因素所要表达的实在价值,然后再加以区分,并要留意每个因素--课题在整体思想中的角色。既然圣奥斯定是用「心灵」描述他的生命,故他是用生活的反思以求达到一个实际的实在,即一个实际的生命的终极历程;在迈向终极历程的路上,表面看来是崎岖不平,又复杂混乱,可是在整体上看,它是一贯相通、组识圆活的,且看出整个「生命」的作用。

因此,倘若我们在阅读「忏悔录」时,将重点放在「生命」的角度上去把握圣奥斯定的思想,我们找出他的思路:「一切都指向生命的发展」(5),生命的发展在于显扬「真理」--「天主」。所以,「生命」是一种暗示,以展示生命彰显的极峰,是在心灵的活动领域中的「真」和「善」。因为圣奥斯定的哲学思想初时是受新柏拉图思想影响,但在归依基督后,他的思想是将「哲学」和「信仰」(神学) 贯通起来,肯定了「真」和「善」是「天主」的本性;故此,纵然在新柏拉图主义中有最精明和对超然真理最敏感的人,如柏罗丁,却不能凭自己的力量达到天主。圣奥斯定在「忏悔录」卷七第二十一章清楚地说:「细心研究之下,我又觉得,我在新柏拉图主义的书籍里,所得的若干真理,在圣经里也可以找到。但读时,必须依靠你的圣宠,使得我们晓得:凡有所见,不应『自夸,彷佛以为不是领受的』(格林多前书4:7,思高圣经译:『你有什么不是领受的呢?既然是领受的,为什么你还夸耀,好像不是领受的呢?』),这不仅对于见到的应该如此,为了能够见到,也应如此;--因为,『所有一切,无一不是受之于天主。』(格林多前书4:7)--这样,不仅受到劝告去认识纯一永远不变的你,也为了治愈疾患而服膺不释。谁远离了你,不能望见你,便应自行正肃,踏上通向你的道路,才能看见你,而终于得到你。」所以圣奥斯定相信天主的计划,在他的生命中,使他在认识天主前,先赞研新柏拉图的着作,以智者自居,以学问自负,而陷于罪恶中;然后,使他牢记着新柏拉图主义着作所给他留下的印象,直到他归依主,将生命浸溶在中圣经中时,天主用妙手来裹治他的创伤,便能分辨出何者是臆断,何者是服膺,以能知道找寻通往幸福的天乡。(忏悔录卷七第二十章)

在「忏悔录」卷十三中,圣奥斯定更描写了:「因圣宠而革新的基督徒之完善生活,特点即在于完全服从天主的圣神;而圣神在这里不是指的任何一种圣宠,而是指那使人成为精神(心灵) 的最高贵的圣宠。……圣神七恩使人达到的境界,是灵魂完全为天主圣神所变化,并绝对听从祂的指导。这就是奥斯定念念不忘的理想,与他的哲学也有密切的关系。」(7) 就在「生命」的变化中,圣奥斯定有了生命的跳跃,且透过信仰,依赖「真理」--「天主」,以及基督的「爱」和圣神的「恩宠」,他的生命得到升华,而进入与天主共融合一的「圆融生命」。在这样的一个生命历程中,其所涉及的「生命哲学」的课题,重要的有:「真理」、「善与恶」、「美」、「认知与记亿」、「幸福」、「时间」等。今分别简述于下:

1. 真理

圣奥斯定对「真理」非常热爱,他爱慕真理,视之如生命;他要以全个「心灵」去拥抱真理,因为他知道他所爱的是什么,追求的是什么「真理」,实在就是天主本身,即永存不朽的真理,他整个生命就在永恒不变的真理中生活:「唉!真理,永远的真理,我从心灵的最深处追念你,深深地向向你,因为我所渴望的,不是那些美妙的受造之物,而是『真理』--是你的本身--『永不变易,永不晦蚀』(雅各伯书1:17,思高圣经译:『一切美好的赠与、一切完美的恩赐,都是从上,从光明之父降下来的,在他内没有变化或转动的阴影。〈他自愿用真理之言生了我们,为使我们成为他所造之物中的初果。雅1:18〉) 的你。」

「真理」是「忏悔录」的核心思想,也是圣奥斯定「生命哲学」所要追寻的终极目标,若得不到真理,就是得不到天主,心灵永不得安息。而谈论「真理」最富丰的,可算是「忏悔录」的卷七。我们可以从三方面来分析:

1.1 真理的开显 (卷七第十章)

「谁认识真理,即认识这光;谁认识这光,也就认识永恒。惟有爱能认识它。」

「光」是回应卷七第九章所言的内容,奥斯定引用若望福音所表达的:「在起初已有道(圣言Logos),道与天主同在,道就是天主。道在起初就与天主同在。万物是藉着他而造成的:凡受造的,没有一样不是由他而造成的。在他内有生命,这生命是人的光。光在黑暗中照耀,黑暗决不能胜过他。」(若望福音1:1-5) 人的心灵只是为光作证,但人的心灵不是那光;可惜,「那普照每人的真光进入了世界,但世界却不认识他。他来到了自己的领域,自己的人却没有接受他。但是,凡接受他的,他给他们,即给那些信他名字的人权能,好成为天主的子女。……」(若望福音1:9-13) 圣奥斯定根据若望幅音的思想,显示出「道」和「光」的思想,这是与新柏拉图主义作一个调整,然后再引用玛窦福音11:25,29所言:「跟我学习吧!因为我是良善心谦的,你们将找到你们灵魂的安息。」以配合他生命的终极:「我的心灵得不到你(天主),就永不得安宁。」这可以使我们再回到卷七第十章,便可以看出真理完全引导着圣奥斯定的生活,以及心灵的活动:

「永恒的真理,真正的爱,可爱的永恒!你是我的天主,我日夜向你呻吟。我认识你后,你就提升我,使我看到我应见而尚未能看见的东西,可是我还没有资格去瞻仰它。你却用你的神光照耀我昏沉软弱的眼睛,我既爱且惧,屏营战栗。我发觉我是远离了你,飘流异地。我彷佛听到你发自天际的声音对我说:『我是强者的神粮;你长大后将以我为饮食。可是我不像你肉体的粮食;你吃形粮,粮将像你;你吃神粮,我不会像你,而你将像我。』」因着真理的包容,开启了圣奥斯定的心灵,使他心领神会的不再怀疑真理是否存在,更肯定了天主所答覆的话语:「我是自有的」(出谷纪3:14) 是真理。

1.2 真理的不变 (卷七第十七章)

「我发现在我变易不定的思想之上,自有永恒不变的真理。」这永恒不变的真理就是「天主」,无恒地超越受造物的,而受造物,即所有的东西都出自真理所限制,故圣奥斯定说:「你用真理掌握着一切,一切以存在而论,都是『真』的;若把不存在的东西认为存在,才是错误。」(卷七第十五章) 因此,凡出自真理的东西,永远不会是假的。因此,圣奥斯定从万物中体验到那永恒不变的真理就是天主本身,万物因天主而为「真」;所以,「使奥斯定陶醉的并不是只想知道真理的好奇心,他想拥有真理本身,并视之如自己的性命;他追求的不是这个或那个各别真理,而是那唯一完整的真理,万物中一切问题的答案:他寻找的是那包罗并解释一切的实在、真、及善,也就是天主。他不断向往 『天主,即智性及内心所领悟的永存不朽之真理』(杂题八十三,第九题)。」(8)

1.3 人如何达到真理

当圣奥斯定体验到有永恒不变的真理在掌握着他的生命后,他也感觉到:「这样,我逐步上升,从肉体到达凭藉感觉的灵魂,进而是灵魂接受器官传递外来印象的内在力量,也是禽兽所具有的最高感性。更进一步,便是辨别器官所获印象的判断力;但这判断力,照我个人的经验,也是变易不定的。因此,当求达到理性(智慧) 本身,理性从我积习的牵缠中将我的思想解放出来,且使我摆脱彼此矛盾的种种想像。找寻到理性所以能毫不迟疑肯定不变优于可变,是受遇一种光明的照耀--因为除非对于不变有一些认识,否则不会肯定不变优于可变的--最后在惊心动魄的一瞥中,得见『存在本体』。这时我才懂得:『你形而上的神性,如何能凭所造之物而辨认洞见』(罗马书1:20,思高圣经译:『其实,自从天主创世以来,他那看不见的美善,即他永远的大能和他为神的本性,都可凭他所造的万物,辨认洞察出来,以致人无可推诿。』)」(卷七第十七章) 可见,圣奥斯定在瞭解真理,进获得其理,是经过不同阶段的生命反思,即从感性,以至内心的判断力,理性的肯定,以及天主的光照,才能在那「一瞥」中感悟真理的不变,即天主的大能。(9)

2. 善与恶

圣奥斯定年轻时曾信仰摩尼教,而摩尼教的学说是「善恶二元论」的,将恶归于物质,人的身体也是恶的,只有精神实体才是善的。我们从「忏悔录」卷三第十章中可了解圣奥斯定所受到的影响:「我并不想到那个真正存在的真理;因此,人们向我提出:『罪恶来自何处?神是不否限制在一个物质的躯体内,是否有头发和手指?多妻的、杀人的、祭祀禽兽的人能否列为义人?』种种问题后,我如受到针剌一段急忙赞成那些狂妄骗子的见解。这些问题使无知的我忐忑不安;我背着真理,还自以为面对真理;我不懂得『恶』不过是缺乏『善』,彻底地说是虚无。那时我的肉眼已为外物所蔽,我的精神只能见到魑魅魍魉,当然我不会懂得这一点。」

圣奥斯定在卷七第一章就清楚表达了自己的错,且渐渐地在成长中,对自己的「生命哲学」思想更有信心:「我败坏而罪恶的青年阶段已经死去,我正走上壮年阶段;我年龄愈大,我思想的空虚愈显得可耻;除了双目经常看见的物体外,别种物体,我都不能思议。我的天主,自从我开始听到智慧的一些教训后,我不再将你(天主) 作为一回血肉躯能来想像--我终于躲避这种错误,我恨高兴在我们的精神母亲、你的圣教会的信仰中找到这正确的观念。」因此,圣奥斯定在肯定「天主」是不朽坏的神体,也是永恒不变的真理后,便藉此以驳斥摩尼教徒(卷七第二章);'虽然圣奥斯定自己承认:「对于恶的来源问题,我还不能答覆,还不能解决。」(卷七第三章) 但他依然深信天主是不变的天主:「不论恶的来源如何,我认为研究的结果不应迫使我相信不能变化的天主是可能变化的,否则我自己成为我研究的对象了。我很放心地进行研究,我是确切认识到我所竭力回避的那些人所说的并非真理,因为我看到这些人在研究恶的来源时本身就充满了罪恶,他们宁愿说你的本能受罪恶的影响,不肯承认自己犯罪作恶。」(卷七第三章)

其实,圣奥斯定已经在卷三第七章中说了他当时不懂得「恶」不过是缺乏「善」,是「虚无」;事实上他是了解的,只是不去探究「恶」的来源问题而矣;而且「恶」本是「虚无」,故也不必探究。因此,圣奥斯定不发问:「什么是恶?」因已是清楚地说了:「善」的缺乏就是「恶」,恶本身不存在。圣奥斯定要问的是:「为什么会有恶?或作恶的原因是什么?」这两个问题实在只是一个:就是「作恶的原因」。这问题的解答,我们可从圣奥斯定所着作的另一本书:「论自由意志」(De Libero Arbitrio) 中得到圆满的答覆。然而在「忏悔录」中,圣奥斯定也很精简明晰地说了:「作恶的原因是自由意志。」(卷七第三章) 于是,圣奥斯定有了答案,可是,他依然的追问下去:

谁创造了我?不是我的天主吗?

天主不仅是善的,而且是善的本体。那末为何我愿作恶而不愿从善?是否为了使我承受应受的惩罚?

既然我是无比温良的天主所造的,谁把辛苦的种子撒在我身上,种在我心中?如果是魔鬼作崇,则魔鬼又是从哪里来的呢?

如果好天使因意志败坏而变成魔鬼;那么,既然天使是来自至善的创造者,人何从产生这坏意志,使天使变作魔鬼?(卷七第三章)

恶原来在哪里?从哪里来?怎样钻进来?

恶的根荄、恶的种子在哪里?是什么?是否不存在?既然不存在,为何要害怕而防范它呢?

既然美善的天主创造了一切美善,恶又从哪里来的呢?

当然受造物的善,次于至善的天主,但造物者与受造物都是善的,则恶确从哪里来的呢?是否创造时,用了坏的质料,给予定型组织时,还遗留着不能转化为善的部份?但这为了什么?既然天主是全能的,为何不能把它整个转变过来,不遗留丝毫的恶?

天主为什么要用物质来创造万物,而不用他的全能把物质消灭净尽呢?

是否物质能违反天主的意愿而存在呢?

如果物质是永恒的,为何天主任凭它先在以前无限的时间中存在着,然后以此创造万物?

如果天主是突然间愿意有所作为,那末既是全能,为何不把它消灭而仅仅保留着整个的、真正的、至高的,无限的善?

如果天主是善的,必须创造一些善的东西,那么为何不销毁坏(恶) 的物质。另造好的物质,然后再以此创造万物?

如果天主必须应用不受他创造的物质,然后才能创造好的东西,那么天主便不是全能的了?」(卷七第五章)

这些问题,圣奥斯定没有回答,只是轻描淡写地肯定的说:「我的心已能坚持这信仰,将一天比一天更融洽于这信仰中。」因为,对于主基督,我们的救主之信仰已巩固地树立在圣奥斯定的心中。(卷七第五章) 故他要强调的是:「天主所愿的是善,天主就是善的本体,而朽坏(恶) 不是善。」(卷七第四章) 恶不是一种本体,本体本身不是恶的:「事物如果存在,自有其善的成份。因此,凡存在的事物,都是善的;至于『恶』,我所追究其来源的恶,并不是实体;因为如果是实体,即是善;如果是不能朽坏的实体,则是至善;如果能朽坏的实体,则必是善的,否则便不朽坏。」(卷七第十二章) 因此,圣奥斯定再强调:「我探究恶究竟是什么,我发现恶并非实体,而是出于败坏的意志叛离了天主(善)。」(卷七第十六章)

3. 美

「我诧异地觉得:我已经爱上了你……我被你的『美』所吸引住。」(卷七第十七章) 圣奥斯定被天主的『美』所吸引,实在是心灵净化的美,使自己的心灵可以达到善,这就是「忏悔录」所要赞叹的,使自己的心灵留下终身难忘的印景:「对于我所见的一切,只留下了一个可爱的回忆。」(卷七第十七章) 包达理(Portalie) 在描述圣奥斯定对「天主的美」的爱慕说:「别的思想家认为世界的景象显示天主的『存在』,而他在询问受造物时,询问的是天主的『美』,而万物的答覆是邀请人爱慕天主:『天、地、天地中间的一切,到处叫我爱你。』。接着他又说:『我瞻望,就是我询问;它们的美丽,就是它们的答案』(忏悔录卷十第六章)。」(10) 万物的美丽是分享天主的美,因为天主在创造万物时都认为一切皆「美好」,故万物的美是天主「美」的痕迹,是天主「美」的影子,这「美」不是外在的,而是内在的,尤其是哲学家亨利神父认为是「忏悔录」的蓝本之「九论集」中有说:

「回到你自己内,看吧:若你在你自己内还看不到美,请学那雕刻家;为了使像美丽,他这里去一点,那里去一块,他刮削,他琢磨……(等作品完工后),你要有自信(这就是柏罗丁的骄傲),纵然你仍是在这里,但你升高了,而你不再需要向导;固定你的视线,看吧!因为那是唯一能看到奇美的眼睛……。谁若想观赏天主和至美,先要变成神圣和美丽的。」(11) 内在的美是心灵的美,分享天主的美。

4. 认知与记忆

圣奥斯定的认知思想实在就是「生命的追求」的思想。认知乃指向生命的终向:即认知天主、追求真理,所以他才会说:「我的心灵得不到天主,就摇摇不安」。认知可见是「心灵」上的,但人的心灵是通过形体的动作才认识一切事物:「我,内在的我,我的灵魂,通过形体的知觉认识这一切。」(忏悔录卷十第六章)

因此,认知有感官性的认知,其对象是外在的,如光明、颜色以及各项物象则属于双目;声音则属耳;香臭属鼻;软硬、冷热、光滑粗糙、轻重、不论身内身外的,都用全身的感觉。(卷十第八章) 有了感官性的认知,问题就发生了:这些色、香、声等如何储藏起来?即当人不看时知花之色、不嗅时知花之香呢?圣奥斯定于是提出了「记忆」--感官性的记忆。记忆就好像一库藏,以供思想回忆时应用:「虽则我并不嗅闻花朵,但凭仗记忆也能辨别玉簪与紫罗的香气;虽则不饮不食,仅靠记忆,我知道爱蜜过于酒,爱甜而不爱苦涩。」(卷十第八章)

但是,感官性的认知和记忆是找不到天主的,而且感官所认知的东西都不是天主,只能藉这些东西证明有一创造者:就是天主。因此,只有进入心灵才能找到天主。(参阅忏悔录卷十第六、七章)

圣奥斯定为了肯定找寻天主不能在记亿中找,故在忏悔录中提出了各种不同的认知和记亿。为描写记忆,他在卷十中共用了九章的篇幅:

感官性记忆(卷十第八章)

智性记忆(特别是数学上的观念和回亿卷十第九至十三章)

情感上的记忆(卷十第十四、十五章)

遗忘的记忆(卷十第十六章) (12)

但以上所言的记亿都不能找到天主,故圣奥斯定最后走到记亿的根底处找,因而进入了形上学的价值上探求。这个探求是一个新的方向,就是对幸福的追求。

5. 幸福

圣奥斯定认为「幸福」早已存在的心灵中,故人在追求中,自然向往真理、向往幸福,自己也必须会选择真理和幸福。然而,在追求上,其方法是「超升」,内容依然是「记忆」,即先由记亿中提示出幸福,于是会吸引人向上的追求。(13) 其实,找寻幸福就是找寻天主,反过来说:就是找寻天主等于找寻幸福,心灵就能安定。圣奥斯定说:

主啊!我怎样寻求你呢?我寻求你天主时,是在寻求幸福的生命。(卷十第二十章)

幸福就是来自真理的快乐,也就是以你为快乐,因为你『天主即是真理』(若望福音14:6),是『我的光明,我生命的保障,我的天主』(圣咏廿六首1节,四十一首12节) 于此可见,谁也希望幸福。谁也希望唯一的真正幸福,谁也希望来自真理的快乐。(卷十第二十三章)

人的幸福是在天主内,且只有在天主内,天主便会光照我们、领导我们、赏报我们真正的幸福;这样,人的心灵才不致摇摇不安,因为「除了在你怀中,我为我的灵魂不能找到一个安稳的境地:只有在你怀中,我能收摄放失的我,使我丝毫不离开你。有时你带领我进入异乎寻常的心境,使我心灵体味到一种无可形容的温柔,如果这种境界在我身内圆融通彻,则将使我超出尘凡。」(卷十第四十章) 圣奥斯定的整个心灵,都放在幸福--天主中,因为他从自己的经验中,体味到幸福是札根在人心灵的最深处,人人都愿觅得幸福,但人人所用的方法不同;有很多人在受造物中寻找,这是白白寻找的,因为不会找到,幸福不在其中;这是当圣奥斯定在青年时到迦太基时一样,只向外寻求,结果只有越寻找幸福、幸福就越远离他。(14) 诚如忏悔录卷三第一章的记载:「醉心于爱的我,还嫌爱的不足;我追求爱的对象,只想爱,我讨厌平凡的生活,也讨厌没有陷阱的道路;我的心灵因为缺乏滋养的粮食,缺乏你--我的天主而饥饿,但我并不感觉这种饥饿,也不企求不朽的粮食,这并非我已饱饫了这种粮食;相反的,我越缺乏这粮食便越感到它的无味。」因为青年的奥斯定没有将幸福放在真理中,只放在自我的放纵中,所以不明白不朽的幸福是在心灵深处的;直到奥斯定认识了天主,常爱慕天主,爱慕真理,才体味到:「从真理来的,才是幸福」(卷十第二十三章),而且更感受到天主就是光、救援、真理,在祂内有幸福的生活、有喜乐;所以,人越认识天主,就越爱天主;越爱天主,也就越认识天主,人的心灵便也越归向天主,他便越感到幸福,心灵便能得到安息。

6. 时间

圣奥斯定在自己的生命中不断追求「幸福」,这份追求就是对天主的向往,故是生命的进路,在期间必定有「时间」的观念。但当圣奥斯定面对天主时,天主是「永恒」,在忏悔录卷十一第一章开始,圣奥斯定就说了:「主啊!永恒属于你!」且在卷十一第四至九章都在谈「圣言(道) 创造天地,而肯定了圣言是永恒的话、圣言本身就是永恒的,但圣言显示于外的东西并不是永恒的。只有那些有信仰的人,在内心寻觅到永恒的主,在永恒的真理中找到祂,因为天主圣言就是永恒的。

圣奥斯定提出「时间」的思想,正是与天主的永恒成对比的,即是将无限的时间(永恒)和有限的时间作比较。然而,究竟人如何在时间内,透过时间而达到永恒?于是,圣奥斯定提出两个问题以说明时间的定义:

(1)第一个问题是只以经验来衡量时间的人,他们没有永恒时间的观念,也不瞭解超越的时间。这些人的问题是:「天主在创造天地之前做些什么?」(卷十一第十章) 这些人的心只浮沉在「主观的时间」中,浮沉在「过去」和「将来」的波浪中。他们不明白「永恒」就是「现在」:「时间不论如何悠久,也不过是流光的相续,不能同时伸展延留,永恒却没有过去,整个只有现在,而时间不能整个是现在,他们可以看到一切过去都被将来所驱除,一切将来又随过去而过去,而一切过去和将来却出自永远的现在。谁能控制人的思想,使它驻足谛观无古往今来的永恒怎样屹立着调遣将来和过去的时间。」(卷十一第十一章) 所以,圣奥斯定大瞻地回答:「天主在创造天地之前,什么都不做。」(卷十一第十二章) 既然什么都不做,连时间也不存在,所以只有思想肤浅的人徘徊于过去时代的印象中,而觉得诧异。为天主来说,「一日如千年、千年如一日」(伯多禄后书3:8),天主的今日即是永恒,因为天主的日子没有每一天,只有今天,这个今天,不在人的时间中。

(2)第二个问题是:「究竟时间是什么?」(卷十一第十四章) 这就是「客观时间」的问题。圣奥斯定的答案实在很奇妙:「如果没有人问我时间是什么,我自觉知道它是什么。但是,如果有人问我时间是什么,我就不知道它是什么了。」(卷十一第十四章) 可见,时间真是一个奥秘。毕竟在奥秘中,圣奥斯定还是以意识中的三度空间:现在、过去、将来答覆了「时间是什么」:「我敢自信地说,我知道如果没有过去的事物,则没有过去的时间;没有来到的事物,也没有将来的时间;并且如果什么也不存在,则也没有现在的时间。」(卷十一第十四章) 但时间的实在性是在于「现在」,所以,圣奥斯定认为:「有一点已经非常明显的,即:将来各过去并不存在。说时间分过去、现在、将来三类是不确当的。或许说:时间分过去的现在、现在的现在和将来的现在三类比较确当。这三类存在我们心中,别处找不到;过去事物的现在便是记亿,现在事物的现在便是直接感觉,将来事物的现在便是期望。如果可以这样说,那末我是看到三类时间,我也承认时间分三类。」(卷十一第二十章)

圣奥斯定以「记忆」考究,将「时间」问题的复杂性揭穿了,且分辨了三类的时间,引出了人对永恒的期望,故可以说:「圣奥斯定要讨论时间的目的就是要透过时间,走向永恒。这永恒是完美的现在,是全部的现在。在它里面,没有『过去』的消逝威胁,也没有不健全的『将来』挂虑。」(15)走向永恒就是去向幸福的生命,也就是人心灵向往的终极,即使自己的心灵能安息在天主的。

五.结语

圣奥斯定写「忏悔录」的目的就是要告诉人:「在我的生命中,我找到了天主、找到了永生的幸福、找到了真理、找到了永恒的终极……我的心灵已得到安顿--在主的怀抱中安息。

「忏悔录」就是圣奥斯定将自己的生命从失落中,经过不断的挣扎,渐渐觉醒,便开始寻找生命终向而慕道,不断反思而觉悟道之在心内,继而得道、行道,以致与道相通相融的历程,清清楚楚地用自己赤诚的心灵将自己解剖。这种一步一步的觅道以至得道而与道通为一的历程,我们可称之为「生命哲学」的历程。圣奥斯定更将自己的生命哲学溶化在自己的信仰中;因此,无论他的思想如何发展,必定与自己的心灵终极有关,而终极指向必定是「天主」,诚如他在忏悔录中所说:「我以整个加我投入你(天主) 的怀抱后,便感觉不到任何忧苦艰辛了;我的生命充满了你,才是生气勃勃。」(卷十第二十八章) 又在「论自由意志」里说:「正如身体的整个生命是灵魂,灵魂的幸福生命则是天主。」(卷二第四十一节) 这是因为在圣奥斯定的经验中,生命是为天主的,人之被创造也是为天主的,所以没有天主的人,心灵便无所憩息。

由于「忏悔录」的「生命哲学」所描述的是人走向永恒终极的生命力动态,这种生命力是心灵的表达,使人面对着终极的天主;因此,「忏悔录」的「生命哲学」所讲的也是「天人的关系」,这关系阐示了一个超越的历程:

我们拾级而上

数尽了一切有形之物

即神游物表……

怀着热烈的情绪,向往幸福所在

接着再向心内走……

我们又穿越我们的灵魂……

到逢丰富无穷的境界。(忏悔录卷九第十章)



5. 同1 27

6. 同上

7. 同上28-29

8. 同4 345-346

9. 可参阅刘俊余译,《奥斯定哲学导论》,第六章「忏悔录中之哲学」154-156

10. 同4 346

11. 同9 161-162

12. 同上 169-170

13. 邬昆如编著,《西洋哲学史》,国立编译馆出版 民60年,第二部,第一章「教父哲学」第三节「奥古斯丁」251

14. 巴尔迪著(吴宗文译),《圣奥斯定传》(Gustava Bardy, Saint Angustine),闻道出版社 民62年12月初版,第十九章「圣奥斯定的心灵」309

15. 同13 266
第十四卷 (1992-93年) 德日进神父的进化论与神观
作者:刘赛眉

引言

德氏被列入我们研讨之范围,我想不仅由于他是一位现代先知,更因为这位先知与中国有一段很深厚的因缘。德氏在中国居住二十二年,对我国地质学界及古生物学界之研究颇有贡献,他本人亦是一位杰出之地质学及古生物学者。

德氏生前曾因从事打破科学与宗教之间的隔闳而遭受流徙放逐之苦,他曾经被猛烈攻击后来又被崇敬的人物。1957年天主教教理审核部曾禁止他的书出版,而他的思想亦受到他的上人所怀疑。因此而被流放到中国来工作。1932年他和几位中国和国际学人发现了周口店的北京智人。可是,当德氏死后,他的思想竟然影响普世,其智慧不仅影响天主教的神学,而且影响到世界的科学及哲学的思潮。他已出版的十部书,总销量达到一百万册。而且各地纷纷成立研究德氏思想的组织。

在古生物学方面,德氏曾协同发现了「北京猿人」--最早类似人形的动物。

一.人物描写

德氏死时享年七十三岁,出身于贵族家庭,内心虽怀有深沉的痛苦,但却常带着光辉的微笑。

他有一颗热爱人类和大自然的心,他常说,「地球是椭圆的,所以友情可以环绕起它来」。

接触过他的人描写他说,这位神父充满幽默,机智,具有温暖的性格,和吸引人的谦诚态度。只是有人以为由于他的工作范围和所接触的人物,均大部份为学者,故虽在中国二十多年,而似未学会中文。此外,由于地出身的背景和他所从事的工作的性质,放在他身上常流露出一种高贵的气质,使人感到他有贵族之气派,其实,德氏为人甚为谦厚朴实。

二.德氏的进化论与神观

德氏的进化论是典型的有神进化论。他以为凡进化都是由简而繁的,而进化是一切事物的基本原则,一切都在进化中。就在这进化的思想中,德氏综合了科学与宗教,教会与世界。

世界不断在进化,宇宙不断在进化,而教会就是在这进化的洪流中存在,教会是一个不断地进化的奥体。「进步」成为了教会的使命。

德日进感悟到神是在大自然和宇宙中,因此,有人怀疑他是泛神论者,其实不然。

德氏的神学是以「科学言语」来表达的神学。他的「神」基本上是在宇宙中又超越宇宙的,祂既在宇宙中推动宇宙的演进又超越宇宙,吸引着宇宙的进化,由此,在宇宙的进化中,基督内的天主是「始点」又是「终点」(是α及Ω)。

1. 德氏的进化观

影响德氏的是几位生物学家的思想:

1809年法国生物学家拉马克(Lamarck)及1859年达尔文的「物种原始」,其中指出物种可以改变,种类之界可以跨越,而后来魏斯曼(Weissman) 的「突变」则与达尔文的生存竞争与自然淘汰说相结合,成立了稳健的「生物进化论」。

德氏就是应用了这「突变」的思想来解释他的进化论,简言之,德氏视宇宙是一个整体,是一个不断地创生的有机体。它的进化步骤,可以用下列图表显示之:

无生物(物质) → 生物 → 有意识的生物 → 有心智的人(人化) → 精神化(人文化)

德氏配合了基督信仰的反省,凭人类的过去,来了解现在,而展望未来,给人类指出一个乐观的远景。

人是灵肉的整体,且正在「人化」的过程中。现在具有心智的人,应该运用其思想和爱心去人化,去孕育更优秀的存在,而人是现阶段演化的轴心。而演化的矢头是指着「终点」(Ω) 的圆满。

德氏思想的综合

(1)宇宙是一整体。

(2)宇宙是动态的。

(3)「表」与「里」的演化:「质」与「量」的互相影响。

(4)物质--生命--意识--心智的节节演进。利用突变的原理。

所谓突变,就是物件演化到某阶段就会有一转捩点,在此点上突变,大跳跃,而进入另一阶段,当进入一阶段时,前一阶段的特征便逐渐消失。例如,婴儿进入成人,成人身上失去了一切婴儿的因素。(物的「表」「里」一起进化)。

(5)物质内有一股内在冲力,使一切由基层而上冲;但亦可以说有一超物质在外吸引走向更完美。

(6)演化的轴心显然在人身上通过,指向奥美茄点。

(7)演化的完成需要人的自由合作。

2. 德氏的物观

德氏以为每一物内有一个「里层」。在「物里」不断地产生细微的改变,在达到一定界限时,才突然暴露。这「里层」德氏称之为「意识」。物质的「里层」与「表层」在进化过程中是互相消长的。「表」「里」是同一演化现象的两个层面。

物质与思想(精神) 不是属于同一层面的,然而两者并非对立,人则是物质能与精神能合一的最好例证,所谓「人化」都是以物质为起点的。

物质能 -- 切线能 ﹨  
                     基本能
意识能 -- 轴心能 ∕  

两者只是由于结构的程度不同而产生两者的差别。

德氏以为物质不一定是拉扯人向下的东西,在我们对物质采取立场之前,作抉择之前,它只是一个坡路,可以踏着它上升,也可以往下降。

可是,由于圣子降生成人,物质便含有一种朝向「更成全」的内在向力。

由于我们是插足于宇宙之中,我们各自站在各个层面上,或者说是站在坡路各个基点上,而且,从这一点开始,因着环境与教育的不同,各人的任务是不断超升而走向天主。赐予给我们的一连串受造物,它们都不必是障碍,反而应是被利用的中介物,是使我们和睦共处及锻炼人的东西。

为德氏看来,信徒的神修是不能脱离此物质世界的,反而人是踏着这物质世界而上升。

3. 德氏对十字架的看法

德氏对十字架的看法也非常乐观。一般而言,我们常常视十字架是一种悲痛,限制和压抑的象征。是达到崇高目标途中的苦痛和压力。

可是,德氏以为这样的神修观是不配合基督的信仰的,他以为「十字架」不是「非人道」的事,而是超乎人道的事,其实,在人类开始存在的那一刻,十字架已竖立在导向受造物可以到达的最高人之路的前面。因看启示之光愈来愈大,原先人只看到的是两条秃木,后来则看见了上面的耶稣基督。

「十字架」也真有与世界一刀两断的意义,十字架是在祂邀请人攀登的上升之路上,强迫人跳过临界的绝壁。因此,人的脚不断脱离,跨越,而演进成长。

换言之,十字架是必须的,是人自我跨越,走向成全的关键与标记。

4. 德氏的基督

德氏视基督为「潜入物质之中,成为物质之一部份」的上主。

基督在物质之中,指导进化。祂用「融合」和「升华」方式,把大地的精华吸向自己,当这工程完成之时便达到保禄所说的,「上主在万有之中作万有」,万物同归于上主。

5. 德氏的新视野

A. 对教会的影响

德日进将「创造」视为是末日才完成的工程,创造并不限于开天辟地的一剎那。

现在教会亦受到德氏的影响,对宇宙,教会本身和其他问题,皆由「动态」及「演进」的角度去看。

B. 德日进亦影响了教会对「原罪」的看法

虽然,德日进因「进化论」及「原罪」的文字,而惹起教会方面的一时焦急。因为他从「缺陷」方面来谈原罪。

到底,今日在原罪神学上,神学家所谓的「世界之罪」(Piet Schoonenberg) 和「集体位格」之罪等,不能说不是受到了德氏的影响。

C. 对「爱」的新强调

在现代所重视的「通过爱人而爱天主」的口号里,实在充满了德日进的精神。

自从人达到人化之后,爱有了新的意义,它是建设人的品格的。

在进化的过程,特别是在人化中,爱是很大的原动力。

德氏的着作,教宗若望廿三世不仅阅读过,而且在他的「地上和平」通谕中用了德氏的用语。

6. 德氏的两大着作:--「神的氛围」及「人的现象」

这两本书可以称为德氏的代表作,前者是信者的心声,后者是科学家的表白。

A. 神的氛围

背景

这本书除了受到若望和保禄的书信影响之外,骨子里是奥古斯丁的神学。

(1)注重的是以「心灵」去接触神;强调以「爱」为中心。

(2)个人的修养方面,则采取「由外而内,由内而上」的途径。

(3)强调「基督奥体」和「上主之城」两个观念的内容。

 (德氏重视在耶稣基督内人类的一体,宇宙不断地进化,通过「融合」和「上升」而凝为一个「大位格」,而使到一切达至融合和上升的力量就是爱)。

B. 人的现象

除了是进化论的科学观之外,这本书内的哲学背景是受到柏格森的影响,亦同时是受到多玛斯的感染。(他的物之「里」就是由他士林哲学的「元型」蜕变而来)。

德氏以为天堂与大地不是对立的,从建立大地而达到天堂。

7. 德氏与圣体圣事

圣体是耶稣圣化物质最具体的标志。当司铎说:「这是我的身体」时,他不但祝圣了面饼,而同时圣化了整个宇宙。

人类转化了物质世界,而圣体转化了人类,圣体是延伸了耶稣的降孕,经过人的努力与奉献,使宇宙基督化。
第十四卷 (1992-93年) 编写《创世论》神学教材的背后
作者:汤汉 Tong, John

当我从罗马毕业返回香港教学后,我曾给我的导师写信,告诉他我将要在香港修院教授的第一项神学科目是「教会学」。他回信敦促我,不但要教导学生瞭解教会,还要热爱教会。因此,两年前,当圣神修院神哲学院校董会成立「神学教材编写委员会」,及分派我负责编写《创世论》时,我再次记起我的导师那番话,并立定宗旨,希望编写这样一本《创世论》,不但使读念它的人瞭解创造主,还要热爱创造主;不但瞭解生命,也热爱生命。

天主教有关创世的教义中文书籍,近二十多年已出版了数册,比如:奥脱着《天主教信理神学》上册;薛迈思着《信理神学》卷二;谷寒松着《神学中的人学》等。这些都是很好的教科书,但由于作者都是西方人,表达方面比较偏重西方思维,未合乎中国人口味,因此,我觉得有重新编写的必要。我编写本书时,希望能突出下列三个特点:

1. 文化中有信仰,信仰中有文化

世上所有人都蒙召信仰天主,我中华文化亦在源远流长的五千年历史过程中,透过古老神话,为天主创世的圆满启示铺路。本书引用了盘古开天辟地、女娲独力造人等中国神话,生动地反映出神、人、世界之间的美妙密切关系。本书亦扼要地点出这些神话后来演变出儒家和道家的宇宙观。由于道家老子的自然之道艰深玄妙,不易知,不易为,故此至东汉末年,张角的地下革命运动,以老子化身为大贤良师作为号召,而公元六一七年在隋朝出现的《老子变化经》,更进而把老子神圣化,形容他是化身降世救主,正好反映出默西亚意识存在于中国文化中。可见我中华文化中实有信仰因素。

本书根据圣经学家的阐释指出,创世纪第一章第一节至第二章第四节a是一首圣咏,为公元前六世纪的作品。它是一班以色列司祭神学家作的。他们先被掳去巴比伦,后被释返回以色列;由于在巴比伦看到波斯帝国的伟大,百花齐放,因而产生豁达开朗的胸襟,写出了这首以浩瀚天空、广大宇宙为题材的赞主诗歌,供群众在圣殿颂唱。这篇司祭典的描述完整而有秩序。从整个故事看,不难发现其中所含的巴比伦神话因素。比如:第一章第一至第二节的「深渊」一词,即与巴比伦神话的混沌龙Tiamat有关。此外,旧约在描述天主时,亦采取了东方神话中的共同特点,屡次将天主描绘成一位东方君主(列上22:19;依6:1f,而宫廷的臣仆就是天使(约4:18)。可见基督信仰中确有文化处境。
2. 理中有情,情中有理

本书提及我们常诵念的信经,是从宗徒时代至四世纪教会公开宣誓信理的经文逐步形成的,它的第一段是:「我信唯一的天主、全能的圣父,天地万物,无论有形无形,都是祂所创造的。」这段经文虽在宣示信理,却含意丰富。比如:「我信」二字的英文(I believe in),在中文却漏译了一个「于」字(in);「于」字甚传神,有如中文所说的「依于仁,游于艺」,有投入的意味,充份表现出「倚赖」之情,要求神人交接的经验。至于「天主圣父」亦说明天主与人的关系;人得不到父,就没有幸福,终有无家可归之感。这是理中有情的实例。

很多人提到天主的仁慈照顾,以及所谓的天意天命,便以为天主安坐天庭,眼巴巴地看着预早编排妥当的历史一页页在祂的面前展开。这本书却告诉我们,天主在仁慈照顾我们、提携我们向善的同时,赋予我们自主权,容许我们反抗祂的恩宠。天主既不愿以罪恶为目的,也不愿以它为达到目的之手段。但是,天主具有从罪恶中产生善的智慧和能力;伦理上的恶最后必须为宇宙的至高目标--天主的光荣--而服务,即天主的仁慈在罪恶的宽恕中得以彰显,天主的公义在犯罪者自绝于神及自食其果中得以表露。这是情中有理的实例。

3. 微观中有宏观,宏观中有微观

本书特别指出创世与救赎的密切关系,因为降生成人的基督乃宇宙与人类的唯一中心,藉此我们可领悟出救赎乃创世的目标,而创世的观念方可彰显救赎的普及性。因此,基督信仰从救恩史整体去瞭解创世,直指新天新地的出现。我们对创世的解释不只是关心世界「开始」时所发生的事件,而是更重视「时间」内所发生的新实现。创造是上主不断的行动,人与世界若在基督里,新创造便发生了(格后5:17),这就是基督徒信仰经验的高峰。这是「微观中有宏观」的神学处理方法。

虽然梵蒂冈第一届大公会议(一八七O年) 申明「天主创造了第一个人」,并定为天主教信理,但本书却进一步指出梵一的宣布分属两个不同层次:属于最核心且最深入的是圣经层次,即肯定人来自天主,也是天主照自己的肖像所「创造」的,他兼具精神与物质要素;涉及「如何创造」的问题,则属较浅层次,所针对的是进一步的问题,包括:究竟原祖父母的身体从动物界演变出来,抑或由天主直接造化而来?原祖父母是一对(单偶),抑或是多对(多偶)?所以我们对教会有关创世的训导既要坚持又不必囫囵吞枣地全部接受。这是「宏观中有微观」的神学处理方法。

总括来说,虽然全书共分四章,而第一及第四两章占的篇幅最多,但我个人则觉得第二章却是全书的核心,也最能赋予我们生活的鼓舞。特别是第二章中所提到的天主照顾与人的祈求,为生活烦忙和焦虑「九七」的香港人最为实用有益。的确,我们烦恼焦虑时,为甚么不尝试仰赖上主?祈祷能帮助我们把烦恼说出来,并非指我们要告知天主我们有何需要,而是开放自己给天主源源不绝的恩惠(从心理学角度看,祈祷为我们也是有益的,因为一个模糊不清的问题是不可能处理的)。此外,祈祷也让我们感到上主分担着我们的痛苦,更是真正行动的能源。

最后,我衷心感谢胡枢机写序,澳门林家骏主教多番鼓励,很多神学先进的着作为本书提供宝贵资料,韩大辉神父和刘赛眉修女进行评审工作,以及陈爱洁小姐负责排版事宜。

本书为中国神学初探者而编写。希望拋砖引玉,亦望各方贤达不吝赐教。
第十四卷 (1992-93年) CATHOLIC CRITICAL EXEGESIS
作者:斐林丰 Fedrigotti, Lanfranco M.

CATHOLIC CRITICAL EXEGESIS :

THE GOLDEN MEAN BETWEEN PROTESTANT FUNDAMENTALIST AND LIBERAL EXEGESIS?



1. INTRODUCTION

The Battle of the Exegetes has been raging for the past three hundred years, since the French Catholic Oratorian scholar Richard Simon (1638-1712) published his Histoire critique da Vieux Testament (Paris 1678). Because of the publication of this book later ages gave Simon the title of "father of modern critical exegesis", but in his own age this book caused his expulsion from the Congregation of the Oratory. (1) First used by a Catholic scholar, this type of exegesis soon became the characteristic domain of liberal Protestant scholarship. However, if Richard Simon were to return today among us he would probably find himself comfortably at home in the exegetical atmosphere officially accepted by the Catholic Church.

Does this mean that the Catholic Church has gone over to the liberal Protestant side? Does it mean that Richard Simon himself was a crypto-Protestant of liberal persuasions? Is liberal critical exegesis a viable form of understanding the Word of God? Can one be a critical exegete and at the same time a faithful Christian believer? My reflection on the relationship of critical exegesis and Christian faith has been stimulated by the recent publication in English of a book by two distinguished German exegetes, H. Conzelmann and A. Lindemann, Arbeitsbuch zum Neuen Testament (Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1985, 8th revised edition; English translation by Siegfried S. Schatzmann: Interpreting the New Testament: An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of N. T. Exegesis, Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1988). The book is a mine of reference material regarding critical exegesis. It is divided into five parts, which read as follows: Part One: Methodology; Part Two: Contemporary History of the NT - The Environment of Primitive Christianity; Part Three: The New Testament Writings - An Overview; Part Four: Jesus of Nazareth; Part Five: History of Early Christianity. Part Three is a detailed historical-critical presentation of all NT books; Part Four begins with the birth and ends with the death of Jesus (the resurrection is left completely out of the picture); in Part Five, the chapter entitled "The Rise of the Christian Church" mentions the faith of the disciples in the resurrection of Jesus.

The reading of this book has posed for me in the strongest possible terms the challenge of critical scholarship to a traditional understanding of the Christian faith. I felt challenged, even though, or perhaps just because, the two authors in the preface assert that they "began with the assumption that the historical-critical interpretation of the NT cannot be an end in itself but is to contribute especially to the clarification of what is Christian belief". While reflecting on the implications of standpoints of this book, I was happy to hear of the publication of an important document of the Pontifical Biblical Commission, entitled The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church (April 15, 1993). The present paper is the result of the interaction of my reflection with the reading of these two influential publications.



  
1. cf. P. Auvray, "Simon, Richard" in New Catholic Encyclopedia, 1967.

2. THE SPECTRUM OF POSITIONS WITH REGARD TO CRITICAL EXEGESIS

The rise of critical exegesis has sparked a whole variety of reactions within the Christian (Catholic and Protestant) community. The differences in the reactions has created different types of exegesis within the Christian Church. A rough classification of these different types of exegesis would look like this:

A. Sectarian Fundamentalist Exegesis.

B. Fundamentalist Protestant Exegesis.

C. Fundamentalist Catholic Exegesis.

D. Conservative Critical Protestant Exegesis.

E. Moderate Critical Catholic Exegesis.

D' Neo-Orthodox Critical Protestant Exegesis.

C' Liberal Critical Catholic Exegesis.

B' Liberal Critical Protestant Exegesis.

A' Faithless Critical Exegesis.

This classification demands a few words of explanation.

2.1

Firstly, regarding the terminology used. The key terms are a) Fundamentalist; b) Critical: c) Conservative or Moderate; d) Liberal. For the purposes of this paper, a) by Fundamentalist I mean a faith that a priori excludes the necessity of the historical-critical method for the understanding of the Bible (2) ; b) by Critical I mean "the scientific study of the Bible utilizing the same formal methods as those used in the study of antiquity, namely, classical philology, archeology, and ancient history."(3); c) by Conservative I mean a critical exegesis which takes seriously the concerns of fundamentalist believers, namely, the "fundamentals" of Christian faith: the inspiration and authority of Sacred Scripture, the divinity of Jesus Christ, his virgin birth, real resurrection from the dead, and second coming.(4) I call today's mainstream Catholic Critical Exegesis "Moderate" and not "Conservative", because I have not found the moderate Catholic Critical Exegetes calling themselves "Conservatives" as readily as moderate Protestants do; d) by Liberal I mean the critical exegesis which dispenses even with the "fundamentals" mentioned above, if so demanded by critical evidence. To give some substance to these definitions, later in this paper I shall consider three works representative of the three main types of exegesis which I shall discuss in detail: the Fundamentalist, the Moderate Catholic Critical, and the Liberal Protestant. Liberal Protestant exegesis will be represented by the work of Conzelmann and Lindemann mentioned above. Moderate Catholic Critical Exegesis will be represented by the new Catechism of the Catholic Church (5); it is a sign of the times that the results of moderate critical exegesis have entered into a Catechism to be used as a standard reference work by the universal Church. Fundamentalist Protestant Exegesis will be represented by the Word Studies in the Greek New Testament of Kenneth S. Wuest (6), an old work recently re-published.

2.2

Secondly, the order of my classification must be legitimated. By putting Moderate Catholic Critical Exegesis in the centre I may appear to beg the whole question from the very beginning. But in reality this is not so. The classification is only a working hypothesis with which to begin. My paper is meant as a test of this hypothesis. The end result of my work will be judged by the reader. Still, the basis of this classification must be explained. This basis is the tension between the contrasting requirements of criticism and of faith in biblical exegesis. At the extremes of the classification there is in A the unqualified appeal to faith and the rejection of any critical stance characteristic of sectarian Christianity (the cults), while in A' there is the exclusive appeal to criticism and the rejection of any role of faith in biblical interpretation, the standpoint aracteristic of liberal exegesis. At first sight at least, the contemporary official stance of the Catholic Church seems to attain an equilibrium between the two exigencies. Therefore, there is at least a preliminary justification for this classification.

Of course, I am well aware that, holding any of the other positions, one could draw up a similar classification by putting oneself in the middle and rearranging the other positions accordingly. Actually this is precisely what is done by Conzelmann and Lindemann when they say: "This principle [that the text determines the method and not vice versa] is to be maintained against criticism from the 'right' as well as from the left'. The 'right', i.e. fundamentalism [...] The left' [is] represented for instance by Marxism's ideology of history [...]." (7) The very same thing is done by the fundamentalists, who see themselves as the golden mean between the extremes of liberal exegesis and Catholic exegesis. James Barr's analysis (8) of this fundamentalist claim is worth quoting: "[...] these two opposite wings [Protestant Fundamentalists and Catholics] have or have had very similar views about the Bible. [...] Protestant conservatives, indeed, feel that the comparison is a rather remote one in any case, because there are so many other factors: in particular, Roman Catholicism, excellent as its doctrine of scripture and its conservatism about historical matters may be, then goes and spoils the whole excellently conservative scheme by adding to the Bible the whole mass of church tradition as another major source of authority. The conservative evangelical, quaintly, thinks that he occupies middle ground in this respect: the liberals' depart from the true position about the authority of scripture by subtracting from it, the Roman Catholics by adding to it.(9)

The Catholic Church and Protestant fundamentalists in the past have made common front in their opposition to liberal critical exegesis, especially during the modernist era at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. But today the situation has changed considerably, especially on the side of the Catholic Church. Hence I think the first thing to do now is to outline more clearly the position of the Catholic Church, comparing it with the positions of Fundamentalism and of Liberal Protestantism.



  
2. H. Conzelmann and A. Lindemami, Interpreting the New Testament (Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1988) 2, define Fundamentalism as the standpoint "that personal faith is presuppositional for proper exegesis - a faith that a priori excludes certain 'critical' results. "Such a definition does not pinpoint exactly the essence of Fundamentalism, since such a definition includes elements proper to Conservative Critical Exegesis and Moderate Catholic Critical Exegesis. The latter can be considered Fundamentalist only by begging the whole question of what Fundamentalism is.

3. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 2.

4. cf. James Barr, Fundamentalism. (London: SCM Press, second edition, 1981) 2.

5. Accessible to me only in the Italian translation: Catechismo delta Chiesa Cattolica (Citta del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1992). The English translation in this paper is mine, except for the quotations from Scripture, where I follow the Revised Standard Version, with some minor variations.

6. "Jesus of Nazareth - Who is He?" in Word Studies in the Greek New Testament 11: Great Truths to Live By From the Greek New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1971, first paperback edition; original edition, 1952); "Greek Grammar and the Deity of Jesus Christ" in Word Studies in the Greek New Testament 3: Treasures from the Greek New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company 1971, tenth printing; original edition1941).

7. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 2.

8. It will be noticed that Barr also locates himself in the middle, between the two supposed extremes of Fundamentalism and Catholicism!

9. Barr, 106-107.

3. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH AND CRITICAL EXEGESIS

In the first two hundred years after Richard Simon, the Catholic Church had great difficulty in figuring out how critical exegesis could be consistent with a faithful acceptance of the Bible as the written Word of God. In the last one hundred years, however, the Catholic Church has grown increasingly confident that critical exegesis and faithful exegesis can make a good marriage. The first signs of this newly found confidence appeared in Pope Leo XIII's landmark encyclical letter Providentissimus Deus (1893). Fifty years later Pope Pius XII in the encyclical letter Divino Afflante Spiritu (1943) endorsed textual criticism, literary genres, archaeological investigation, etc. as legitimate instruments of Catholic exegesis. This was a decisive breakthrough. The years 1964-1965 saw some basic results of critical Gospel exegesis accepted by the Pontifical Biblical Commission (Instruction Sancta Mater Ecclesia, 1964) and, more importantly, by the Second Vatican Council (Dogmatic Constitution Dei Verbum, 1965).

Finally, on April 15, 1993 the Pontifical Biblical Commission issued a document entitled The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church. This document a) briefly describes the various exegetical methods and approaches, indicating their strong points and weak points; b) discusses a few hermeneutical problems; c) reflects on the basic dimensions of a Catholic interpretation of the Bible and its relationship to the other theological areas; d) considers the place occupied by Biblical interpretation in the life of the Church. (cf. Introduction, B) (10)

Regarding the historical-critical method, the document has this to say (11): "The historical-critical method is indispensable for the scientific study of the meaning of ancient texts. Sacred Scripture, insofar as it is 'Word of God in human language', has been composed by human authors in all its parts and in all its sources. Hence the right understanding of Sacred Scripture not only admits as legitimate, but demands, the use of this method." (I.A)

Naturally, this is not the only method. Hence the document continues: "No scientific method for the study of the Bible is capable of exhausting the richness of the biblical texts. Whatever its validity, the historical-critical method cannot pretend to be all sufficient. Inevitably, this method neglects several aspects of the writings it studies. No wonder, therefore, if today other methods and approaches are proposed to deepen this or that aspect worthy of consideration." (1.B) Even so, the historical-critical method remains fundamental and indispensable.

In presenting this document Pope John Paul II recalls the wonderfully deep reason of this indispensability, namely the mystery of the Incarnation. The Pope refers to a text of the Second Vatican Council: "In sacred Scripture [...] while the truth and holiness of God always remain intact, the marvellous 'condescension' of eternal wisdom is clearly shown, 'that we may learn the gentle kindness of God, which words cannot express, and how far. He has gone in adapting His language with thoughtful concern for our weak human nature.' (St. John Chrysostom, On Genesis, 3,8). For the words of God, expressed in human language, have been made like human discourse, just as of old the Word of the eternal Father, when He took to Himself the weak flesh of humanity, became like other men." (Dei Verbum, 13).

While there was a time when the terms 'critical' and 'Catholic' used in my title were somehow mutually exclusive, today this is no longer the case. On the contrary, they are mutually inclusive. On the one hand, the acceptance of the critical method by the Church is a sign of her catholicity. On the other hand, the critical method is essentially catholic in its reliance on criteria which are as objective as possible. Catholic means universal, and there is nothing more universal for humanity than our God-given rationality. Unreasonableness creates ghettos. Reason opens up the individual to others and to the Other. The Catholic Church's endorsement of the critical method is in line with its uninterrupted acceptance of natural theology as praeambula fidei.

The welcome given by the Catholic Church to the critical method means that the Church can no longer be considered fundamentalist. In fact, it is characteristic of fundamentalism to reject on principle the critical method, or at least a great part of its results. For fundamentalism, the critical method is the negation of the Bible as the written Word of God, inspired and guaranteed by God. For the fundamentalists, the destructive results of the application of this method to the Bible are all too evident. The Catholic Church, with her two hundred years of misgivings with regard to this method, is in a position to understand the concerns off undamentalist Christians. The excesses of liberal Protestant exegesis have their share of responsibility for the opposition aroused against critical exegesis. In particular, the fundamentalists reproach the critics for readily admitting all sorts of mistakes in the Bible. How can the Word of God include mistakes and errors, and still be the Word of God? This is the overriding fundamentalist concern. Within the Catholic Church there has taken place a profound reflection on this problem. It would be good for the Protestant undamentalists to take cognizance of the results of this reflection and see whether they are not a better response to their concerns than their own fundamentalism.

Pressed by the alternatives, to accept the supposed results of critical exegesis and admit errors in the Bible, or to continue to affirm the absolute authority of the Bible and reject the results of critical exegesis, the fundamentalists opt for the second alternative. The price they pay for doing so is double: on the one hand, this rejection induces a certain lack of intellectual honesty and consistency in dealing with problems in the Bible. (12); on the other hand, this rejection results in an undue stress on the supernatural and the divinity of Christ, at the expense of his humanity.

At the opposite pole of the spectrum, the position of liberal Protestantism vis-a-vis critical exegesis is one of unconditional acceptance. Does this mean a corresponding rejection of the I standpoint of faith? No, liberal Protestantism does not reject the I faith but does something which to Catholic and fundamentalist eyes I amounts very much to a rejection of the faith. Liberal Protestants ! argue for the essential irrelevance of the results of historical-critical exegesis to the Christian faith. In their own words: "In terms of method, the biblical texts are to be treated no differently than other literary sources, especially those of antiquity. [...] For the beginner in this discipline, this observation may already cause initial problems to surface. Anyone who expects 'edification' from his encounter with the OT and the NT is at once confronted with the questions of authenticity, unity, and historical reliability. He has to ask whether the certainty of his own faith may be jeopardized by questioning the historical reliability of certain traditions concerning Jesus, or whether such a danger can be avoided on the premise that faith and historical insight belong to two fundamentally different levels.(14) It is clear that Conzelmann and Lindemann opt for this second alternative. It is also clear that behind this choice there is the "sola fide" ("faith only") principle of Martin Luther: no human element (whether rational or historical) can undermine the certainty of the faith or claim to offer any kind of support to a self-sufficient faith.

Whether this is a satisfactory solution to the problem caused by the tension between criticism and faith remains to be seen. In my opinion, this solution is as unsatisfactory as the fundamentalist solution. There, as already pointed out, intellectual honesty becomes a problem and so does the full reality of the Incarnation. Here, strangely enough, the same twofold problem surfaces. On the one hand, the liberal Protestant position also lacks intellectual honesty. Is it not too easy an escape to say that the historical findings of critical exegesis are ultimately irrelevant to the faith? It must be a cheap faith that can be defended all that easily! Moreover, such a facile defence is actually meant to give critical exegesis a totally free rein. The Christian experience of faith is said to be meaningful even apart from its basis in history (a basis which liberal critical exegesis declares mostly irretrievable). "But this attitude is of little interest to the [true] historian, who will be justified in pointing out that 'there must be an adequate basis for the alleged experience if it is to be meaningful.'" (15).

On the other hand, the reality of the Incarnation is also in danger here. If history is irrelevant to the faith, it means that the Word is not truly Incarnate. A tremendous dichotomy is introduced between reason and faith, nature and grace, time and eternity, man and God. The same dichotomy emerges disguised in different clothes in fundamentalism. After all, opposites touch one another. It may well be that Fundamentalist Exegesis and Liberal Exegesis, these opposites which polarize the Protestant field, are finally rooted in the unbalance of the "sola fide" ("faith only") principle as distinct from the Catholic "prima fides" ("faith first") principle.



  
10. The only edition available to me is the Italian edition. The English translation of this document in the text of my article is mine. Cf. Pontificia Commissione Biblica, L 'inferpretazione delta Bibbia nella Chiesa (Citta del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1993) 125. This summary of the whole document appears on page 29.

11. Pontificia Commissione Biblica, 30.

12. cf. Barr, 40-89 and 120-159.

13. Ban, 169-171.

14. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 2-3.

15. Michael Grant, Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977) 182.

4. CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF THE CONFLICT OF EXEGESES - THE PERSON, TITLES, AND CONSCIOUSNESS OF JESUS

4.1 A FUNDAMENTALIST EXEGESIS OF Jn 1:14

Fundamentalism disdains critical exegesis, but it does not disdains scholarship. Kenneth S. Wuest was a university professor, conscious of his scholarly status. He had a very good knowledge of New Testament Greek. He put this good knowledge to very good use to support his fundamentalist exegesis of NT texts. However, the rejection of a critical attitude at times makes him too easily satisfied with the reasons given for a certain exegetical standpoint, as when, for example, he insists on "a rule in Greek syntax called Granville Sharp's rule [...]. The expression in the Greek text ["our great God and Saviour Jesus Christ"] conforms to this rule. Here Paul [...] teaches that Jesus of Nazareth is deity. " (16) It may well be that the text here refers the title "God" to Jesus Christ. But it does not follow that this is proved by the reason given by Wuest. A somewhat more critical spirit would have warned Wuest not to apply too absolutely Granville Sharp's rule. (17)

Explaining the Greek text of Jn 1:14, Wuest has this to say: "And then John speaks of the incarnation again in the beautiful words, 'And the Word became flesh and lived in a tent among us' (1:14). The A. V. [Authorized Version] has 'The Word was made flesh.' To make something is to take something and mold it into a new form, changing its shape. The first form disappears to have something that has a different form takes its place. But nothing like that happened to Jesus of Nazareth. Absolute God in His preincarnate state. He remained such in His incarnation. He did not relinquish His deity upon becoming man. He was not made flesh. He became flesh. The Greek word is ginornai, and it is in a tense and a classification of that tense which speaks of entrance into a new condition. By 'becoming flesh', John means that the invisible, eternal, omnipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient God added to Himself a human body and put Himself under human limitations, yet without human sin. While still deity and omnipresent He became localized in a human body. While still deity and therefore omniscient. He lived the life of a human being on earth. He thought with a human brain. He became exhausted. He broke into tears. He needed food, clothing and shelter. He gave us a picture of what Deity is like through the medium of a human life. He lived in a tent in the midst of humanity. That tent was His human body. Thus, Jesus of Nazareth is a Person having two natures. He is absolute deity. He is true Man. His deity did not add to His humanity. His humanity did not detract from His deity. "(18)

There are several things that strike me in this passage. Firstly, the stress on an orthodox expression of the faith, but in such a way that the orthodoxy sounds exterior, forced (some of the expressions used perhaps are simply heterodoxical: "he became localized in a human body" and the like). Great trouble is taken to give the impression that all this dogmatic material is contained in the single verse of Jn 1:14. Between the lines one reads an attack on liberal and faith-less denials or doubts about the divinity of Christ. The urgent need to confute them transpires from the repetitive and emphatic style. (19) Totally absent is any reference to historical-critical or literary questions. Grammar is the instrumentum princeps of fundamentalist exegesis, because fundamentalists apparently believe in a verbal (dictation type) inspiration of the Bible, so that every word in the Greek text is somehow inspired and is a carrier of revelation. "Thus the rules of Greek grammar teach the deity of Jesus Christ."

There is a sense of smug confidence in what Wuest says, which leaves little room for the sense of mystery. Fundamentalist exegesis is overly confident in dealing with the mystery of God and of Christ. It would do well to ponder a little these words of Kier- kegaard: "One is deeply moved, one longs to be back in those beautiful times, a sweet yearning conducts one to the desired goal, to see Christ wandering in the promised land. One forgets the dread, the distress, the paradox. Was it so easy a matter not to be mistaken? Was it not dreadful that this man who walks among the others - was it not dreadful that He was God? Was it not dreadftil to sit at table with Him? Was it so easy a matter to become an Apostle? But the result, eighteen hundred years - that is a help, it helps to the shabby deceit wherewith one deceives oneself and others. I do not feel the courage to be contemporary with such events, but hence I do not judge severely those who were mistaken, nor think meanly of those who saw aright."(20)

It is strange that it should take a philosopher to remind faith stalwarts like the fundamentalists (or, for that matter. Catholics) that the core of their faith is the mystery of God in Christ. Concern for orthodoxy is a very good thing. But there is also a negative side to it, namely, the danger of turning God into an object and Truth into a series of propositions.

4.2 A CRITICAL LIBERAL PROTESTANT EXEGESIS OF THE SELF- CONSCIOUSNESS OF JESUS AS REVEALED IN THE GOSPEL TITLES OF JESUS

Paragraph 56 of Conzelmann and Lindemann's Interpreting the New Testament is dedicated to "The Question of Jesus' Self consciousness". It discusses the problem whether the titles "Messiah", "Son", "Son of God" and "Son of man" reveal anything about Jesus' self-consciousness. Let me simply report the conclusions of their investigation.

4.2.1

Firstly, with regard to the title "Messiah". Their exegetical conclusion about the Confession of Peter in Mk 8 is this: "The analysis of Mk 8:27ff. indicates agreements with the confession of faith formulated by the Christian community. The pericope contains no concrete, historical material but turns out to be a sort of credal presentation in the form of a scene: that which the whole community believes. Peter voices as representative of all."(21) As for Mk 10:46ff., their verdict is: "Of course, the cry of Blind Bartimaeus ("Son of David") is no historical datum, since it is a question of an introduction to a miracle story, hence a question of a formation by the community." The entry into Jerusalem "proves to be a messianic legend of the community. The scene is inconceivable as a historical event". What about the trial of Jesus before the Sanhedrin? "[...] It is likewise clear that this scene is devoid of a historical core, for the presentation of the trial is altogether determined christologically. The question of the high priest presupposes that the designations 'Messiah' and 'Son of God' are ultimately identical - a linguistic usage that is foreign to Judaism."(22)

4.2.2

Secondly, with regard to "Son (of God)". "The demons address Jesus as Son of God (Mk 3:11); but this is the community's formation, as is the trial before the Jewish Council, as we have already seen. And the same applies ultimately also to the two epiphany narratives of the baptism and of the transfiguration. They too are legends. [...] Mk 13:32 reflects the early Christology of the church. [...] In its tradition, the early church did not consciously distinguish between authentic sayings of Jesus and secondary formulations of the community. [...] Mt 11:27 is also an expression of community Christology (cf. the affinity with Mt 28:18). It is more difficult to assess the situation in Mk 12:lfft...] If one attempts to reconstruct an original parable of Jesus by excising the allegorical features, all that would remain is merely a parable concerning the fate of the owner of a vineyard and of his son; even then the text would not answer the question of whether Jesus laid claim to the title Son (of God). Conclusion: As far as it can be recognized, Jesus did not designate himself as Son of God" (23)

4.2.3

Thirdly, with regard to the title "Son of man". The "Son of man" sayings are classified by Conzelmann and Lindemann into a) Sayings concerning the parousia of the Son of man; b) sayings concerning the suffering Son of man; c) a saying concerning the Son of man's having come". About a), Conzelmann and Lindemann have this to say: " (a) If the statements about the parousia of the Son of man (Mk 8:38; 14:62) were to be viewed as authentic, one would have to assume that Jesus expected his own future transformation into the Son of man; but this construct can in no wise be derived from the texts. [...] The sayings which speak of the coming Son of man probably point back to Dan 7:13f. and were subsequently applied to Jesus by the community. (b) There are sayings that speak of the suffering Son of man (Mk 8:31) but [...] these are likewise formulations of the community." (24) With respect to c), i.e. Mt 8:20, the following is said: "The statemerit becomes meaningful when it is understood as the community's retrospective glance upon the overall ministry of Jesus; only from this vantage point does it take on meaning as a call to discipleship. It is probable, therefore, that this understanding of the Son of man concept originated only in the church. " (25)

General conclusion drawn by Conzelmann and Lindemann: "As far as we can discern, Jesus used none of the christological titles mentioned in the Synoptics in connection with his own person. Consequently it is impossible to reconstruct the self-consciousness of Jesus from the christological titles of the synoptic tradition" (26)

What is left, then? This: "[...] it follows from the message of his preaching and from his ministry (healings) that he understood himself, as well as his appearance, as the sign of the kingdom of God that is at hand. Any statements that go beyond this are nothing more than mere presupposition." (27)

4.2.4

Now a few comments of my own are in order. Reading through this book of Conzelmann and Lindemann I get a very strong impression of the all-pervasive presence of the logical fallacy of circularity (vicious circle, petitio principii, begging the question). The two authors systematically eliminate material which could be used for a counter-argument that would reach conclusions very different from their own. I think that in the few pages that I have surveyed above this vicious circle appears clearly: it is self evident that Jesus never used or assented to the use of any title if you systematically attribute all these titles to the supposedly creative function of the community! The consistency with which the material is eliminated as a source for evidence of the Sitz im Leben Jesu points to the fact that this elimination is not really demanded by considerations of a historical-critical and literary nature. Instead this elimination is dictated by some basic presuppositions which guide the exegetes and determine their choice beforehand. One such presupposition is certainly the one mentioned in the previous section, namely, the belief that historical data are ultimately irrelevant for the Christian faith.

Such a criticism of liberal critical exegesis is standard in the fundamental ist field.(28) This is no reason for setting it aside as pointless. The ftindamentalists have a point here. A point recognized by Conzelmann and Lindemann themselves: The exegete "must ask (or be asked) about the presuppositions he brings to the text. What tradition is in his background? What questions does he expect the text to answer? Why indeed does he even deal with this text? [...] There is no exegesis without presuppositions. Each interpretation is at least influenced by the exegete's own historical setting. Therefore, he must first of all be clear about the presup- positions he brings along. " (29)

This is very good advice. But I doubt whether the two distinguished authors have taken it themselves. Their book is full of so many "only", "exclusively", "of course", "impossible", "inconceivable", "entirely different", "contradictory", "absurd", "utterly grotesque" etc., all words which betray a self-confidence little in tune with the critical (and therefore self-critical) enquiry. It is all too easy to commit the fallacy of "cavalier dismissal" of different views when one is so full of self-confidence.(30)

Then from time to time one bumps into some problems which seem to be of the exegetes' own making. Take the following example: "Indeed, this is what poses the theological problem of why the Christian faith is not identical with the faith, that is, with the proclamation of Jesus. One needs to explain why, apart from the Gospels, all early Christian literature all but completely ignores both the teaching and the history of Jesus. " (31) That there is a certain discrepancy between Jesus' proclamation and the church's proclamation, this is true. But the explanation is not so far away, unless you have already pre-empted all possibility of an explanation by eliminating all the Gospel material as a possible source of the solution. The "complete ignorance" of early Christian literature (the rest of the NT?) about the teaching and the history of Jesus is not, after all, such a great problem. One has only to pay attention to the literary genre of this early Christian literature. Most of it is of a strictly didactic and paracletic literary genre (the Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse being the exceptions). Now it is only to be expected that a didache and a paraklesis will systematically ignore the kerygma, presupposing it as already announced and received. Paul, James, Peter and John did not write letters to announce the kerygma, i.e. to announce Jesus in his sayings and doings. They had done this already by word of mouth. They wrote letters to tackle particular problems of thought and practice that had arisen in the communities. With these considerations in mind, it is easy to see how the problem presented by Conzelmami and Lindemann evaporates like mist in the sunlight.

I have mentioned the circularity of much of this work of Conzelmann and Lindemann. At times other logical fallacies come to the surface in a rather transparent way. One of the most frequent perhaps is the fallacy of false disjunctives, making an improper appeal to the law of the excluded middle. Just one example: "On principle this pericope could also be placed elsewhere in the Gospel, in other words, it does not constitute evidence for a historical development and, instead, fulfils a theological or christological function. " (32) The authors of this sentence have presented the disjunctives in such a way that its two terms (history and theology) seem mutually incompatible. It did not enter their heads that a pericope could have both an historical and a theological ftinction. If any incompatibility is perceived, this is due to the subjective (and invalid) presupposition of the authors that these two levels are "fimdamentally different" to such an extent as to be mutually irrelevant.

Another frequent fallacy is the failure to recognize distinctions as when one argues that "because x and y are alike in certain respects, they are alike in all respects" (33) This fallacy lurks under every appeal to more or less parallel material in Hellenistic literature to deny the historical character of the Gospels.

Finally, on certain problems Conzelmann and Lindemann seem to be out of touch with the latest research. For example, in dealing with parable and allegory, it would appear that no significant advance has been made in the solution of these problem and in the exegesis of the parables since Julicher (end of 19th century, beginning of 20th century). Of his landmark work. Die Gleichnis-reden Jesu, our two authors say that it "has not been replaced to date. "(34) But this does not seem to be the real state of affairs. Perhaps it is true that no single book has appeared to surpass Julicher 's book in importance. However, the cumulative research of exegetes after Julicher has produced results which demand fundamental modifications to some of Julicher's most fundamental tenets. The precise relationship between parable and allegory is one of the tenets in need of revision. Another example: when dealing with the problem of whether the Last Supper was a paschal meal or not, no notice is taken of significant new suggestions. Perhaps one of the reasons for this way of acting is a certain auto-limitation (except for the bibliographies, which have been enriched by the addition of English works by the translator) merely to German scholarship in the discussion of problems. " (35)

I have dwelt somewhat at length with this book of Conzel-mann and Lindemann because it seems to me that, while offering an amazing amount of useful information, it is radically vitiated by theological biases that drastically reduce its utility as a guide to an adequate understanding of the nature of the NT material. It is time now to turn to an equally critical (but not equally destructive or faulty) approach to the exegesis of the Gospels, namely, the approach presented in the new Catechism of the Catholic Church.

4.3 A Critical Catholic Exegesis Of Jesus' Identity As Revealed By The Gospel Title Of Jesus

In Chapter Two of Section Two of Part One, the Catechism of the Catholic Church deals with "Jesus Christ, Only Son [of God the Father], Our Lord". The approach is fundamentally scriptural. The choice of texts is very careful. The Chapter starts with several quotations: one from Galatians, two from Mark and two allusions from Luke, thus:

"'But when the time had fully come, God sent forth his Son, born of woman, born under the law, to redeem those who were under the law, so that we might receive adoption as sons' (Gal 4:4-5). This is the Good News regarding 'Jesus Christ, Son of God' (Mk 1:1). God has visited his people (cf. Lk 1:68), has fulfilled the promises he made to Abraham and his posterity (cf. Lk 1:55); he has gone beyond all expectation: he has sent his 'beloved Son' (Mk 1:11)". (No. 422)

The choice of these texts has been critically influenced. The core of Gal 4:4 is an old pre-Pauline kerygmatic formula. Mark, commonly accepted as the first Gospel, is also drawn upon. The transcendent meaning of "Son of God" is stressed. Will this be critically ascertained? The next number (423) draws upon the Gospel of John to stress even more the transcendent meaning of "Son of God". Then the Catechism continues:

"Moved by the grace of the Holy Spirit and drawn by the Father, with regard to Jesus, we believe and we proclaim: 'You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God' (Mt 16:16). On the rock of this faith, confessed by Peter, Christ has founded his Church (cf. Mt 16:18)." Will any critical observation be made about this? Let us see.

In Article Two, the Catechism examines the name Jesus and the titles Christ, Only-begotten Son of God, and Lord. I shall concentrate on the last three.

4.3.1 Christ.

"Christ derives from the Greek translation of the Hebrew term 'Messiah' which means 'anointed'. In itself it is not a proper name, but it becomes Jesus' proper name because Jesus fulfils perfectly the God-given mission signified by this term. As a matter of fact, in Israel those who were consecrated for a mission entrusted to them by God were anointed in the name of God. Thus kings were anointed, (36) priests also, and, in rare cases, the prophets. Such an anointing vas due par excellence to the Messiah whom God planned to send in order to inaugurate definitively his Kingdom. The Messiah had to be anointed by the Spirit of the Lord, thus becoming at the same time king and priest, but also prophet. Jesus has fulfilled Israel's messianic hope in his threefold capacity as priest, prophet, and king (No. 436).

We have here a good catechetical presentation of the meaning of the term Christ. It presupposes a certain work related to Biblical Theology. No critical feature is yet apparent.

"A number of Jews and also some Gentiles who shared the Jewish hope recognized in Jesus the fundamental traits of the messianic "Son of David" promised by God to Israel. Jesus accepted the title of Messiah, since it was his by right, but not without some reservations, because some of his contemporaries understood it in a way all too human, essentially political." (No. 439)

The observation that Jesus had reservations in accepting the title of Messiah is critical. The next number explains the meaning of Jesus' acceptance.

"Jesus accepted Peter's profession of faith, recognizing him as Messiah, by announcing the imminent passion of the Son of man. In this way he has revealed the authentic content of his messianic kingship in the transcendent identity of the Sonrofman "descended from heaven" (Jn 3:13) as well as in his redemptive mission as Suffering Servant. ' The Son of man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many' (Mt 20:28). For this reason the true meaning of his kingship is revealed only from the height of the cross. Only after his Resurrection, can his messianic kingship be proclaimed by Peter before the people of God: " Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly that God has made him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom you crucified'." (No. 440)

The stress on the Cross as the core of the messianic identity of Jesus is fruit of critical redactional work on the Gospel of Mark. The crucial character of the Resurrection is a commonplace of critical exegesis. Throughout there is a robust, and yet guarded, confidence that the Gospels offer reliable material for the understanding of Jesus, his identity and mission. Here, and not in the presence or absence of critical judgement is the great difference between Catholic Critical Exegesis and Protestant Liberal Exegesis.

4.3.2 Only-begotten Son Of God

Son of God in the Old Testament is a title given to the angels, to the chosen people, to the children of Israel, to their kings. In these cases it has the meaning of an adoptive sonship which establishes between God and creatures particularly intimate relationships. When the promised Messiah-king is called "son of God', this does not necessarily imply, according to the literal meaning of the texts, that the Messiah is more than human. Those who thus designated Jesus as Israel's Messiah probably did not intend to mean anything more." (No. 441)

This is a strictly critical presentation of the historical situation with regard to the meaning of the title "Son of God". The note appended to the last sentence refers to Lk 23:47: "Now when he saw what had taken place, he praised God, and said: 'Certainly this man was innocent!"'. This means that, after a comparison with the parallel texts in the other two Synoptics, the Catechism concludes that the Lucan version expresses the historical meaning of the words recorded by Mark and Matthew: "Truly this man was the Son of God!" (Mk 15:39; Mt 27:54). Such a conclusion pre-upposes the acceptance of at least a double level of complexity in the process of formation of the Gospels, i.e. the level of historical fact and the level of Gospel redaction.

But then the Catechism continues:

"The same thing cannot be said of Peter when he confessed Jesus as 'the Christ, the Son of the Living God' (Mt 16:16), because Jesus responds with solemnity: 'For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven' (Mt 16:17). In a parallel way, with reference to his conversion on the way to Damascus, Paul will say: 'But when he who had set me apart before I was born, and had called me through his grace, was pleased to reveal his Son to me, in order that I might preach him among the Gentiles...' (Gal 1:15-16). 'And in the synagogues immediately he proclaimed Jesus, saying, 'He is the Son of God.' (Acts 9,20). This will be from the very beginning the centre of the apostolic faith, first of all professed by Peter as foundation of the Church." (No. 442).

Here the title Son of God is given a transcendent meaning. What is the ground for such an attribution? In the following three numbers the Catechism gives the answer:

"If Peter could recognize the transcendent character of the divine sonship of Jesus Messiah, it is because Jesus let it clearly appear. Before the Sanhedrin, to his accusers' question: 'Are you the Son of God, then?', Jesus replied: 'You yourselves say that I am' (Lk 22:70). Long before, he had already spoken of himself as 'the Son' who knows the Father, who is distinct from the 'servants' whom God had previously sent to his people, who is superior to the very angels. Jesus made a distinction between his sonship and that of his disciples by never saying 'our Father' except when giving them the command: "You pray then like this: Our Father" (Mt 6:9). He has even emphasized this distinction: 'my Father and your Father' (Jn 20:17)." (No. 443)

This is a very careful collection of Gospel evidence for the understanding of the self-consciousness of Jesus. Again one can see the positive approach to the historical value of the Gospel material. In the next number we pass from Jesus' self-consciousness as unique Son of God to the human recognition of such uniqueness:

"The Gospels in two solemn moments, the Baptism and the Transfiguration of Christ, report the voice of the Father who calls Jesus his 'beloved Son'. Jesus presents himself as 'the only Son' (Jn 3:16) and with this title affirms his eternal pre-existence. He demands faith 'in the name of the only Son of God' (Jn 3:18). This Christian confession appears already in the exclamation of the centurion before the crucified Jesus: 'Truly this man was the Son of God' (Mk 15:39); as a matter of fact, only in the Pascal Mystery can the believer give to the title 'Son of God' its full meaning." (No. 444)

Several points should be noted here. Firstly, John is used with as much confidence as the Synoptics as a source of reliable knowledge about Jesus. Secondly, the scholarly discussion whether Jn 3:16-21 should be put on the lips of Jesus or on those of the evangelist seems to have been overlooked or judged irrelevant. Thirdly, unlike liberal exegesis, the Catechism does not find any irreconcilability between a confession formula "In the name of the only Son of God" and the fact that this formula has a background in the life of Jesus. Fourthly, Mk 15:39 is said to be a Christian confession. This must be put in relation with what has been said above about Lk 23:47. In this way it will be seen that this paragraph again envisages at least a double level of Gospel formation: the level of history (where the meaning of the centurion's exclamation is rendered by Lk 23:47) and the level of redaction (where the meaning intended by Mark is that of the Christian confessional formula, i.e. the transcendent meaning of "Son of God"). Finally, the last sentence of paragraph 444 is the fruit of critical exegesis, which has established that only after the resurrection, when Jesus appeared to them, did the disciples come to full faith to him.

This last point is stressed also in the next paragraph:

"After the Resurrection, Jesus' divine sonship is revealed in the power of his glorified humanity: he is constituted 'Son of God in power according to the Spirit ofholiness by his resurrection from the dead' (Rom 1:4). The Apostles can now proclaim: 'We have beheld his glory, glory as of the only Son of the Father, full of grace and truth' (Jn 1:14)."

Notice how again recourse is had to an old pre-Pauline kerygmatic formula. This frequent recourse to old kerygmatic formulas is a way of putting to good use the results of critical exegesis which has had the merit of detecting these formulas. Moreover, the use of these formulas is the Catechism's way of pointing to a third level of Gospel formation, i.e. the level of pre-Gospel written sources. As a consequence, in these few paragraphs which we are examining, one can see the complete basic set of levels of Gospel formation discovered by modern critical exegesis: the level of the evangelist, the level ofpre-evangelist sources (written and oral), and the level of the historical facts. This is one of the main critical results officially accepted by the Catholic Church in one of the most solemn forms possible, namely, a dogmatic constitution of an Ecumenical Council. The Catechism has been faithful to the authoritative indications of the Second Vatican Council's Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation No. 19. The Council first professes the Christian certainty of the historical value of the Gospels, and then explains the critical threefold level of formation. I think that article 19 is worth quoting in full, with indications of the three levels added in parentheses:

"Holy Mother Church has firmly and with absolute constancy held, and continues to hold, that the four Gospels just named, whose historical character the Church unhesitatingly asserts, faithfully hand on what Jesus Christ, while living among men, really did and taught for their eternal salvation until the day He was taken up into heaven (see Acts 1:1-2) [FIRST LEVEL OF GOSPEL FORMATION].

Indeed, after the ascension of the Lord the apostles handed on to their hearers what He had said and done. This they did with that clearer understanding which they enjoyed after they had been instructed by the events of Christ's risen life and taught by the light of the Spirit of truth.

The sacred authors wrote the four Gospels, selecting some things from the many which had been handed on by word of mouth or in writing [SECOND LEVEL OF GOSPEL FORMATION], reducing some of them to a synthesis, explicating some things in view of the situation of their churches, and preserving the form of proclamation [THIRD LEVEL OF GOSPEL FORMATION] but always in such fashion that they told us the honest truth about Jesus. For their intention in writing was that either from their own memory and recollections, or from the witness of those who themselves 'from the beginning were eye witnesses and ministers of the word' we might know 'the truth' concerning those matters about which we have been instructed (cf. Lk. 1:2-4)." [FIRST LEVEL OF GOSPEL FORMATION].(37)

Again, it should be noticed how the faith in the transcendent sonship of Jesus is firmly rooted in the experience which the disciples had of the Risen Jesus. These last two paragraphs of the Catechism also indirectly explain the redactional situation of Mt 16:16b-19. A comparison with the parallels in Mark and Luke shows that Matthew has here transposed a post-resurrectional account into the ministry of Jesus. The confession of Jesus as Christ-Messiah by Peter belongs to the pre-paschal ministry of Jesus, as recorded by Mark, Luke and Matthew (and also by John: cf. Jn 6:66-71). On the other hand, the confession of Jesus as Son of the Living God and Jesus' reaction to this Father-given confession is probably post-resurrectional. It is an account of the Risen Jesus' appearance to Peter (ICor 15:5; Lk 24:34; Jn 21) and of Peter's acknowledgment in faith of Jesus' transcendent sonship. This acknowledgement has been preceded by Jesus' decisive witness to his divine sonship during the Jewish trial before the high priest and the Sanhedrin, a witness sealed by death. By this faith acknowledgement Peter reverses his threefold denial of his relationship with Jesus. Jesus' reaction to Peter's confession of faith is to build his Church upon this rock (cf. Jn 21:15-19). Such a redactional analysis of Mt 16:13-20 is the achievement of recent critical exegesis.

4.3.3 Lord.

"In the Greek translation of the books of the Old Testament, the ineffable name by which God has revealed himself to Moses, YHWH, was rendered by Kyrios ['Lord']. Since then, Lord has become the most usual name to denote the very divinity of the God of Israel. The New Testament uses the title 'Lord' in this strong sense for the Father. But, and this is new, it is also used for Jesus, who is thus acknowledged as God." (No. 446)

"Jesus himself, in a veiled way, attributed to himself this title when he discussed with the Pharisees the meaning of Psalm 110. But he also did so in an explicit way when addressing his Apostles. During his public life his acts of power over nature, over sickness, over demons, over death and over sin, were all manifestations of his divine sovereignty." (No. 447)

"Very often in the Gospels people address Jesus by the title 'Lord'. By this title they intend to express the attitude of respect and trust with which they approach him to obtain help and healing. Pronounced under the motion of the Holy Spirit, this title expresses the acknowledgement of Jesus' divine Mystery. In the encounter with the Risen Jesus, it becomes an expression of adoration: 'My Lord and my God' (Jn 20:28). Then it assumes a connotation of love and affection which will remain typical of Christian tradition: It is the Lord!' (Jn 21:7)." (No. 448)

In these three paragraphs we have a careful analysis of the usage and meaning of the term kyrios. Different layers of meaning are distinguished. The pre-paschal usage by people is defined in non-transcendent terms, while the post-paschal usage is full of transcendent meaning. This transcendent meaning is based on Jesus' own pre-paschal hints at such a transcendent meaning. It is clear that this distinction between pre-paschal and paschal is the fruit of modern critical exegesis of the New Testament. Its incorporation into the Catechism of the Catholic Church shows that the Catholic Church recognizes the validity of these critical results.

It will also be clear, of course, that we are in an almost totally different world from that of Conzelmann and Lindemann. What makes the difference? Is it the critical nature of the results? If there is a difference in this regard, I dare suggest that it will be because the results of Conzelmann and Lindemann are not critical enough! Of course, the superficial apparatus is ominously critical. But what about the substance?

Evidently the clearest difference is in the attitude to the historicity of the Gospel material. We have seen that the negative attitude of the two German exegetes is due to ideological presuppositions of doubtful validity. I call these presuppositions ideological because they are recognized explicitly by the two authors, but from the very beginning they are excluded from scrutiny and discussion. Now this, I think, is the definition of ideology: a way of thinking that has not been critically examined. And this, in my opinion, is what the presuppositions of Conzelmann and Lindemann amount to.



  
16. Wuest, Great Truths, 15-16; ibidem, 31.

17. The fallacy of applying this and other grammatical rules too absolutely has been pointed out by D.A.Carson, Exegetical Fallacies (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1984) 80-90.

18. Carson, 29-30.

19. A few pages earlier, Wuest had this to say about the Liberals' suspicions of the Testimonium Flavianum: "In an attempt to break the force of this passage from Josephus, Liberalism claims that it was placed in his writings by the Christian Church to strengthen the argument for miracles." (Wuest, Great Truths, 15). Wuest, Treasures, 33.

20. Soren Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling. Translated with Introductions and Notes by Walter Lowrie (New York: Doubleday 1941, Anchor Books edition 1954) 76.

21. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 323. Notice how the non-historicity of the scene is deduced from the fact that the title is present in the faith of the community.

22. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 323-324. Notice how the reasons given are very summary and of a rigid form-critical nature. However, this book is a summa of critical Findings. Hence no roofs are given. Still, the whole procedure smacks of the defect Conzelmann and Lindemann find in Bultmann's The History of the Synoptic Tradition: "If one consults the book for the purpose of analyzing particular pericope, the immediate impression is that the author makes apodictic decisions about the text without even as much as an attempt at substantiation. " After making this remark, the authors immediately go to the rescue ofBultmann, adding: "This, however, is not the case at all. If one begins to read each chapter in light of its end, as it were, the criteria upon which Bultmann has established his arguments become clear. Only in this way is it possible either to retrace his decisions or to criticize them." (Ibidem, 65) It is not clear what Conzelmann and Lindemann mean by this observation (what does "in the light of its end" ean?). In any case it is not easy to free the whole endeavour of Bultmann from the charge of a deep seated and all-pervading vicious circle fallacy.

23. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 324-325.

24. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 326.

25. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 327.

26. Conzelmann and Lindemann, ibidem.

27. Conzelmann and Lindemann, Ibidem.

28. cf. Barr, 145-149.

29. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 2.

30. "The fallacy in this instance lies in thinking that an opponent's argument has actually been handled when in fact it has merely been written off". Carson, 120.

31. Carson, 286.

32. Carson, 304.

33. Carson, 97.

34. Conzelmann and Lindemann, 74.

35. See, for example, the discussion of the presentation of Jesus' teaching on page 305.

36. Here and throughout, I omit the numerous biblical references given in the footnotes.

37. Walter Abbott (ed.). The Documents of Vatican II, (New York: The America Press 1966) 124.

5. CONCLUSION

I would like to conclude this paper by first quoting two more paragraphs from the Catechism of the Catholic Church, which will form the basis of my concluding comments:

"By attributing to Jesus the divine title 'Lord', the first faith confessions of the Church, from the very beginning, affirm that the power, the honour, and the glory due to God the Father are due also to Jesus, because he is 'in the form of God' (Phil 2:6) [another pre-Pauline faith formula!]. At the same time these faith confessions also affirm that God has manifested this lordship of Jesus raising him from the dead and exalting him to his own glory." (No. 449)

"From the beginning of Christian history, the affirmation of Jesus' lordship over the world and history implies also the acknowledgement that man must not submit his or her own personal liberty in an absolute way to any worldly power, but only to God the Father and to the Lord Jesus Christ: Caesar is not 'the Lord'. 'The Church believes...that in her most benign Lord and Master can be found the key, the focal point, and the goal of all human history.' ( (Gaudium et Spes, 10)." (No. 450)

No human being must submit his or her personal liberty to any worldly power in an absolute way. This challenge also faces all Christian exegesis of the Bible. The spirit of the Enlightenment has been in one sense the breakthrough of the Spirit of God, rich in fruits of tolerance, justice, sense of brotherhood and equality, desire for peace and universal communion, based on the principle that God-given reason is the common charism of all human beingsa nd freedom is of the essence of human nature. But the Enlightenment can also become a source of new slaveries and unimaginable oppressions, if it becomes detached from the ideal source of its world-stirring ideals, God.

By denying that "personal faith is presuppositional for proper exegesis", Conzelmann and Lindemann appear to me to fall into the pitfall of making an idol out of the spirit of the Enlightenment. By saying this, they are actually submitting themselves to the Caesar of modern rationalism, a contradictory form of rationalism, which devours its own childen: modern constitutionalism and democracy are as much the fruit of the Enlightenment as the two World Wars and the breakdown in morality which will characterize the 20th century in all future history.

Protestant (and Catholic) liberal critical exegesis seem to me, therefore, to be capitulating before the Moloch of modern godless rationalism. On the other hand, Protestant Fundamentalism apparently believes that, to meet the challenge of preserving the Christian faith in its pristine purity, it must deny the necessity and inevitability of the critical approach. Moderate Catholic Critical Exegesis stands between these two extremes. Why should it be given central place, if not because it is the only exegesis that effectively affirms the Mystery of God in Christ, while at the same time respecting the integrity of this rational animal, the human person?
第十四卷 (1992-93年) THE DIGNITY OF THE HUMAN PERSON IN AFRICAN BELIEF
by Emeghara, Nkem

INTRODUCTION

Does the African attribute any dignity to the human person? Anyone who is influenced by the old ideas of colonial writers on African societal life would perhaps readily answer this question in the negative. This is because such writers did not take time to study the African mind well before drawing their conclusions. The Africans have thus been described as 'brutes', 'cannibalistic'' crude', 'primitive', 'dark', 'savages', 'pagan', 'ignorant' etc. Human sacrifice and twin murder are among the practices usually cited as evidence of poor regard, or lack of regard, for human dignity on the part of the Africans.

It is the aim of this short paper to call attention to the fact that African society has a very high regard for the human person and gives the preservation of human dignity a priority, contrary to the old beliefs held by some scholars.

The dignity of the human person is seen in the African view of human origins, worship and morals, and in community life.

Much of our illustration will be taken from the lgbos of Nigeria. This is because the writer is lgbo by tribe. The contents of this paper are essential in this day when the world has continued to neglect the dignity of the human person, which has resulted in so much inhumanity on the part of human beings towards each other. Africa is not excluded from this modern inhumanity.

1. HUMAN DIGNITY IN CREATION

One of the ways by which Africans accord a high dignity to the human person is in their view of human origins.

In the creation stories of all African peoples, humanity and God are so connected that one would cease to exist without the other. Although God is understood as being all-powerful, ever-present, all knowing and demanding the greatest honour, fear and reverence from all creation, the African realizes that God's imprint is within the human being, who imperatively acknowledges God's existence and worships accordingly. The lgbos of Nigeria, for example, recognize that the mystery associated with what is called amadu (humankind), which includes humankind's inestimable abilities to produce, build, and to destroy, accounts for human origins and sustenance in God (Chukwu). The chi in human persons is regarded as the inner presence of Chukwu (God), linking them spiritually with God. God created human beings good, complete and likable.(1) They have communion with God, and this communion can be ritually restored whenever it is disrupted. Metuh expressed this closeness to Chukwu among the lgbos when he stated:

Viewed from the standpoint of his origin and final destiny man is best understood in relation to Chukwu (God), his creator. Man comes from God. He has a definite mission to fulfil in God's plan and will eventually go back to God. (2)

Being a complex psycho-physical being which is as mysterious as the universe, the human person remains the highest of all the creations of God. Humanity is the high-point of God's creative action and it is around the human person that the physical and spiritual dimensions of life activities seem to cohere.

God gave human beings the capacity for bringing the ideas they have to fruition, a human trait symbolized in the lgbo Ram headed deity called Ikenga (4).

Ikenga operates in a number of selves or principles: The obi (the heart) is the centre of volition and obedience. It is the concrete human and can be described as courageous, or weak, good or bad, strong or soft. The desire of every human person is to have a strong, courageous and kind or soft obi. A weak and wicked obi is easily subject to the attacks of witchcraft and sorcery, and may consequently weaken and die (5). At death the obi leaves the physical body. In some parts of lgboland it is ritually strengthened for the ancestral world and in preparation for reincarnation.(6). The obi can thus be regarded as the manifestation of life. The chi, as we have said, is the aspect of the human person that comes directly from Chukwu. It has been regarded as a life principle, a genius, or spirit doublet It is the chi that links the human person to God and determines an individual's fortune, or destiny in life. At death, the chi (destiny-spirit) goes back to God in preparation for the person's reincarnation which is determined by God. The eke links people with their ancestors and as a result with the life-force of the clan. A child comes to the world with an incarnation of an ancestor's eke. This ancestor must be known in order to reveal to the parents the taboos and rituals to be observed in order to ensure the child's survival. It is a common saying that a person embarking on a journey should leave his or her eke at home and proceed with the chi. This is because it is believed that in case of danger, the eke will call the person back home, while one needs one's chi on a journey because the chi ensures that the destiny will be achieved on the trip. This destiny is also represented as akara aka, i.e. prints or crevices on the palms of the hand. The goal of a person's life is to achieve the akara chi, i.e. the destiny imprinted on the palms. The eke and the chi work together to achieve this. (8)

Other aspects by which people operate include the shadow-spirit (onyinyo), which is believed to be individual, while the real human person is created by God. The shadow-spirit is also said to be incarnate in the body and is assigned an ancestral guardian. It is believed to survive after death as an individual person and can in turn become an ancestral guardian.(9)

The ume (breath) shows that the breath-spirit is operating in the physical body (ahu). At death the physical body decays and dissolves while the person continues to exist as onye mmuo (spirit being), different from onye mmadu which he or she was before death.

These principles of operation make the human person feel closely related with the unseen "spirit world" through the consciousness of self-transcendence in spite of the physical interactions in the visible world. (10) Peaceful operation at all these levels is necessary for the human person to live life (ndu) to the fullest, which is God's most precious gift. (11)

Thus the dignity of human persons is seen in their being created good by God, their complex nature and God's imprint in them as the crown of God's creation, as well as in God's provision for a continual interaction with them through ritual, despite their limitations. To the lgbo, the human person has an intrinsic nature which, among all creation, is special in the sight of God.



  
1. An attempted etymology of the lgbo Word mmadu renders it as mmadu "let goodness exist" see R. ARAZU "A Cultural Model For a Christian Prayer", in African Christian Spirituality, A. SHORTER (ed.) (New York: Orbis Books 1978) 114.

2. Emefie Ikenga - Metuh, African Religions in Western Conceptual Schemes: The Problem of Interpretation (Studies in lgbo Religion) 2nd ed. (Onitsha Nigeria: IMICO Press 1985) 109.

3. Cf. O. Imasogie, African Traditional Religion Ibadan (Nigeria : UPL 1982) 56.

4. Cf. E. Ilogu, Christianity and Igbo Culture (New York : NOK Ltd. 1982) 204.

5. E. Ikenge - Metuh, Comparative Studies of African Traditional Religion (Onitsha, Nigeria: IMICO Pub. 1987) 187.

6. Cf. Metuh, Conceptual Schemes, op. cit., Ill and C.K. Meek, Law and Authority In a Nigerian Tribe (London: OUP 1937) 55.

7. See E. llogu, Christianity and lgbo Culture, op. cit., 34. Bolaji Idowu, African Traditional Religion: A Definition (London: SCM 1973) 177. Metuh, Conceptual Schemes, 111.

8. Cf. Metuh, Conceptual Schemes, 111.

9. Metuh, Comparative, 187.

10. Cf. llogu, op. cit., 204.

11. Emeka Ojukwu, The Ahiara Declaration (Geneva: Mark Press 1969)25.

II. HUMAN DIGNITY IN WORSHIP

The dignity of the human person is also identifiable in an insatiable desire to worship.

Mbiti has rightly observed that African peoples do not know how to exist without religion.(12) Adasu also observes that the Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions has acknowledged that African religion impregnates the whole life of the community. The day begins and ends with ritualism. All life bears the sign of transcendence and African life has developed a human personality, the spiritual dimension of which assists each one to respond to the noblest aspirations - aspirations that are religious, intellectual and artistic. (13).

Wherever the African is, there is religion and its morals. For the African, the human person is a religious being. (14) This value gives the human person a high dignity. The poorest person is, therefore, rich in nobility as a religious being. This dignity may not provide material wealth, but the African is satisfied with it because it gives hope and a reason for living. As Parrinder puts it,

Man lives in a moral society and his behaviour is prescribed by relationships. Morality is the mores, the manners and the customs of society.(15)

Religion, which gives the African morality, is part and parcel of African customs and traditions, African life. They do not need to put them down in scripture or in texts or as tenets. (16) Each one is aware of all the elements of religion and worship. God, spirits, and the divinities are part of the body of beliefs. To take part in community worship is to have life, for that is what gives the human person dignity precisely as human. In relating with God, who is always the first and the last, Africans do not neglect the lesser spirit beings, without whom their interactions may not be complete. Above all, these spirit beings exist because humanity exists. Any deity that humanity discards ceases to exist. They are messengers of God for the benefit of humankind.

The lgbos of Nigeria believe that God pays attention to every individual at all times. Thus the individual directs prayers, sacrifices, rituals, offerings etc. to God in the manner of worship and incorporates God's name into the names given to children. Theophorous names include Chinomso (God is close by me), Chukwudi (God is), Chika (God is the greatest), Chidimma (God is good), lzuchukwu (God's plan), lwuchukwu (God's laws), etc. Because God is the final arbiter and judge to the lgbo, God's name is used in blessings, oaths and curses, and it also features in songs, and greetings.

The high point of the lgbo concept of human dignity manifested in worship is, perhaps, the reverencing of the ndichie (ancestor). An ancestor is a male person who lived a good life, had offspring, died a good and natural death at a good old age. Such a person is ushered into the ancestral world through funeral rituals and is again reincorporated into the family of his children through the setting up of a shrine for him. It is in this shrine that he is reverenced or worshipped. His presence is felt at all times as he is considered to be part and parcel of the families of his living children. Above all everybody is regarded as the reincarnation of an ancestor, a belief that accords everyone the highest dignity.

Finally, the traditional African allows individual determination of worship expression. No converts are made. There is no mission or evangelism to win people over to the traditional faith.

This also is a recognition of the dignity given in creation. Everyone has the right to religious self-expression.



  
12. J.S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (London: Heinmann 1969) 3ff.

13. M.O. Adasu, Understanding African Traditional Religion, Part One (Dorset: Dorset Pub. Co. 1985) 18 citing Non-Christians Secretariatus Meeting The African Religions (Roma: n.p. 1969) 3f.

14. Adasu, African Traditional Religion, 18.

15. E.G. Parrinder, Religion In Africa (London: Penguin 1969) 89.

16. An Ashanti proverb says that everyone knows of God's existence by instinct and even children know him. See Mbiti, op.cit., 29.

III. HUMAN DIGNITY IN COMMUNITY LIFE

The lgbo recognizes human dignity in human origins and Worship. It is, however, in the community life that the dignity of the human person finds perhaps its greatest expression among the lgbos.

First of all, individuals are not regarded as complete until they have been identified with a community. Each one must belong to kith and kin, to parents, brothers and sisters, who are immediate, and to a wider relationship within the extended family. There is nothing like individualism. A person belongs to an immediate family, hamlet, village, clan and town. This belonging enhances chances of survival and ensures security and growth. The compound segment is very important in lgboland. A compound is made up of families of the same immediate fathers. An individual without family is an anomaly, for the family makes the person. A family includes living relatives, ancestors and those yet to be born. According to Shorter, this is the most realistic human community. There is peaceful coexistence through sharing and mutuality. This value, he says, is shown by the use of "our" instead of "my" by Africans.

Every life crisis of an individual involves the whole compound and sometimes the whole hamlet, village, clan, or town. A new born baby does not belong to the biological mother and father only. The baby belongs to the whole community. Thus the lgbos say that one person does not own a child. The child addresses father's brothers (i.e. those called "uncles" in English) as "fathers". A child grows under the watchful eyes of everybody. As they grow up, children are initiated into the appropriate roles they are expected to play. They are not left alone to learn the societal omenala (traditions) without guidance. It is a common African belief that there is foolishness in the growing person (young person). They must therefore be guided otherwise they may destroy themselves. At all levels of development, the lgbos give people titles which indicate expected roles. Thus after infancy and childhood (nwata), a person becomes okorobia (male) or agbohobia (females). In later adult life one is referred to as okenye (old adult). At a good old age one is referred to as onye nka (the very old). At death one becomes ndichie (ancestor). Each stage carries its own dignity and respect as well as its associated role.

A person also acquires respect through the age groups he or she belongs to, for a person's age group is expected to ensure protection and security.

Thus the daily duties of a weak or sick person would be carried out by companions in the same age group. In spite of poor health, one took part in collective farming, building and harvesting, which used to be usual daily experiences. Poor people were never derided as long as they had done their best. In fact, collective labour made it impossible for a family to suffer hunger or want. During the gleaning months anyone could go into any farm to harvest the leftovers.

It was a duty to protect your neighbour's back. Everyone's dignity was respected and ensured. The farmlands were fairly distributed and no one person or selected individuals could own more than their entitled portion. Thus oppression of the downtrodden was checked. In fact there were no downtrodden. Is it any wonder, then, that hunger was not a known issue in lgboland before colonialism and the modern age of capitalism and unjust economic systems.

Respect for one another was further enhanced by the fact that the ruler and the ruled were responsible to God for whatever they did, and everyone's actions were regarded as affecting others and society for good or bad. Everyone was, therefore, "his brother's keeper". Human dignity was highly preserved for that dignity was part of a person's immortal soul or life essence. The lgbo say that "Dignity is beauty". Whenever you encounter someone, you learn, through long greetings, of his or her real condition. You put forward in conversation feelers to find out the possible reactions to the proposals you might intend to make. As a host you do not ask people whether you could do something for them. You are expected to do all you can, offering them your hospitality and warmth of reception, thereby creating for them an atmosphere conducive to speaking out frankly. A visitor is never a disturbance and does not need to make an appointment for a visit. Gifts are not to be refused, for this is regarded as an insult. (21)

If a neighbour seeks to borrow from you, you give what is needed in confidence. You assist the neighbour who is in trouble without waiting to be invited.

The old are respected and cared for as they are the custodians of the societal customs and morality. The older people in the community are regarded as advanced in wisdom and self-discipline. The whole life of a person in the community is geared toward the service of God and humanity.

Sin is regarded as resulting from the urge for power. (22) Power is sought as a means of suppression and oppressfon of the weak. The lgbo understanding of human dignity recognizes that suppression and oppression (power) are desires lying at the centre of human personality which must be adequately checked if human dignity is to be upheld. Neglect of human dignity can result from sin, which can lead to catastrophe because the gods would readily react adversely - a situation that would do no one any good.

Taking care of the less fortunate ones in the community is a duty no one dares neglect. The orphan, the widow, the deformed etc. are provided for and never to be oppressed. A child is taught lessons against the oppressing of the weak early in life. This is done through songs and folk stories. The following is one such song which the writer was taught when he was about the age of five:

nwa ewen nne UnechU

nwa 'wen, nwa 'we nneh, Unneh!

eshi ma nri

Unneh!

akpaba nwa enwe nne

Unneh!!!

Eje ma oru

Unneh!!

Akpofu nwa nwe nne

Unneh!!!

Eshi sha nri

Unneh!!

Akpofu nwa enwe nne

Unneh!!!

Eri mma nri

Unneh!!!

Akpofu nwa enwe nne

Unneh!!

Nwa enwe nne Unneh!

Ahu shiela m anya Unneh!

Ahu shie anya, Unneh!!!

Ahu shie anya ka onwu

Unneh!!!

Translation

Oh! the orphan! Oh! the orphan!!

In preparing food,

The orphan is involved in the cooking.

In going to work (farm),

The orphan is involved in the work.

But when the cooking is completed,

The orphan is sent out of the house.

When the eating is carried out,

The orphan is sent away.

Oh! the orphan!

I, the orphan, have suffered indeed.

I, the orphan, have suffered indeed.

My suffering is worse than death.

The lesson that is taught in this song and the accompanying story shows that the orphan represents all the possible states of the weak, all the types of oppression which can come from the master, and the consequences for the oppressed. Oppression of the helpless leads to a most pitiable state.

In some parts of Africa, there existed the common practice afan anonymous person leaving an empty basket in the center of a village as an indication that some person or family was in difficulty. People responded to this gesture by putting into the basket whatever they could afford to give away, sometimes from their very need. No questions were asked. After a while, the anonymous person came to carry away the filled basket.(23)



21. Ibid, 133.

22. Ibid. The writer's great-grandfather who was leader of his people relinguished the throne because the colonial masters introduced oppression of the subjects.

23. A practice among the Shilluk and some tribes in Nigeria. See Ibid., 111.

CONCLUSION

The human person, special among all the creatures of the universe, has a high dignity in the mind of the African. Although hey may not be perfect, human beings still have a special place in God's heart. God does not discard them and has given them many special qualities which make them different and dignified. People worship God as a right and this makes them morally responsible, a value that other forms of creation lack. In the African community, therefore, all acknowledge this special nature of the human person, and consequently human dignity is extolled and granted each one. African society was what it was solely because the upholding of human dignity was uppermost in the African mind. Being an ever-worshipping being, the African sees the greatest indication of worship in care and respect for others. From childhood, each one is taught to belong and to respect, to produce and to share.

The lesson the modern world can learn from the African is that inhumanity breeds oppression, competition, war, hunger and, perhaps, the final destruction of the human race itself.
第十四卷 (1992-93年) Why and How I Wrote The Theology of Creation
by John Tong, translated by Peter Barry

Why and How I Wrote The Theology of Creation

After returning to Hong Kong from studies in Rome in 1970, I sent a letter to one of my professors there telling him that the first seminary course I had to teach was ecclesiology. In his reply, he encouraged me to not only teach the students to understand the church, but also to love the church. Thus two years ago when the Board of Directors of Holy Spirit Seminary College established the "Committee for Publishing a Chinese Theological Textbook Series," and assigned me the task of writing The Theology of Creation, I recalled those words of my professor. In writing The Theology of Creation I set as my goal not only to help the readers understand our Creator, but also to love Him; not only to understand life, but to love life. In the past two decades a number of books have been translated or written in Chinese which treat the Catholic doctrine of creation. Among these are Ludwig Ott's Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, Michael Schmaus' Dogma Vol. II, Luis Gutheinz' Christian Anthropology, etc. These books are good teaching materials, but the authors are all Westerners. Their way of expressing themselves is more in accordance with a Western way of thinking; it does not suit the Chinese taste. Therefore I felt that it was necessary to rewrite the material. In writing the book I tried to stress the following three characteristics:

I. Elements of faith in culture, and cultural elements in faith.

Everyone in the world is called to believe in God. The ancient myths in Chinese culture's long 5,000 year history paved the way for the full revelation of God's creation of the world. The book makes use of Chinese myths, like Pan Gu ( ) dividing heaven and earth and Nuwa ( ) creating human beings through her own efforts, which vividly expressed the beautiful and close relationship between God, human beings and the world. It briefly points out how these myths were later transformed into the worldviews of both Confucianism and Taoism. The Natural Way of Taoism's Laozi is quite mysterious, and is difficult both to understand and to put into practice. In the waning years of the Eastern Han Dynasty Zhang Jiao's( ) underground revolutionary movement used the rallying cry of Laozi being reincarnated as an immortal. Then in 617, during the Sui Dynasty, when The Book of Changes of Laozi appeared, this even more ivinized Laozi, describing him as a saviour who has entered into our world. This reflects a messianic consciousness present in Chinese culture, and therefore we can detect elements of faith in that same culture.

This book, in accordance with the exegesis of Scripture scholars, points out that Genesis 1:1 - 2:2a is a psalm written in the 6th century B.C. by a class of priestly Israelite theologians. They had been taken captive to Babylon, and had returned to Israel upon their release from captivity. While in Babylon they observed the greatness of Persia and the flourishing intellectual life there. They suddenly experienced a clarity of vision and a breadth of mind. So they wrote this hymn of praise to God for believers to sing in the Temple which had as its theme the vastness of the heavens and the expansiveness of the universe. The narration of the Priestly Code gave completeness and order to the song. Looking at the story as a whole it is not difficult to discover that it contains elements of Babylonian myths. For instance, the word "abyss" in Genesis 1:1- 2 is related to "Tiamat" in Babylonian mythology. Moreover, when the Old Testament talks about God, it chooses points in common with Eastern mythology. It frequently describes God like an Eastern king (I Kings 22:19; Isaiah 6: 1ff) and angels as servants in the king's palace (Job 4:18). From these examples we can see that there are cultural elements in the Christian faith.

II. Love in the midst of reasoning; and reasoning in the midst of love

The book points out that the Creed which we usually recite was gradually formed over a period of 300 years, from the time of the Apostles to the 4th century when the church was allowed to publicly proclaim the faith. The first line of the Creed says: "I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, creator of heaven and earth, and of all things, visible and invisible." Although just expressing an article of our faith, nevertheless this line of the creed is quite rich in meaning. The book points out that the first words are "I believe in," but that in the Chinese rendition there is no" in." If the Chinese word for "in" were added to the proclamation of our belief in God, it would more vividly show our love for and our reliance upon God, and the experience of searching for an interaction between God and human beings. Applied to "God the Father," it describes the relationship between God and human beings. If humans do not arrive at the Father, then they have no happiness and will always have the feeling of being homeless. This is a real example of love in the midst of reasoning.

While many people speak of God's merciful providence and God's will, they think of God as sitting on His heavenly throne casting His eyes over each chapter of history, which He has al-ready arranged, as it unfolds before Him. The book points out that when God mercifully cares for us and guides us in the way of goodness. He at the same time gives us free will and permits us to resist His grace. God does not have evil as an object, nor is evil a means for arriving at His object. However God has the wisdom and the power to produce good out of evil. In the end moral evil must serve the most lofty goal of the universe - the glory of God. God's mercy is manifest in the forgiveness of sins. The justice of God is shown in the alienation of the sinner from God and in the consequences the sinner suffers from this alienation. This is an example of reasoning in the midst of love.

III. The macrocosm within the microcosm, and microcosm within the macrocosm

The book especially points out the close relationship between the creation and the redemption because the incarnate Christ is the one and only centre of the universe and of human beings. Through this we come to realize that redemption is the climax of creation, and that the idea of creation manifests the universality of redemption. Therefore from salvation history Christian faith gives a complete explanation of creation by pointing to the rise of a new heaven and a new earth. Our explanation of creation is not only concerned about the events which took place at the "beginning" of the world. Rather it places greater emphasis on the new accomplishments that take place in "time." Creation is an ongoing action of the Lord. If human beings and the world are in Christ, a new creation has taken place (2 Cor. 5:17). This is the summit of the Christian's faith experience. This is the theological approach of "the macrocosm within the microcosm. " Although Vatican Council 1 (1870) led us to think that God created the first man, this book points out that such teaching of Vatican Council I can be understood on two different levels. That which is at the core and at the deepest level is the level of Sacred Scripture. This affirms that human beings, composed of spiritual and material elements, came from God and that God "created" them according to His own image and likeness. The problem of "the manner of creation" belongs to a more superficial level. This points to such questions as: did the bodies of our ancestral parentsreally evolve from animals, or were they directly created by God? Were our progenitors just one couple (monogenism) or were there many couples (polygenism)? Therefore although we must affirm the church's teaching about creation, it is not necessary to accept everything without analysis. This is the theological approach of the "microcosm within the macrocosm." In sumation, although the whole book is divided into four chapters, and chapters one and four take up most of the pages, I personally feel that chapter two is the heart of the book, and provides the most encouragement for our daily lives. I especially refer to the part in chapter two which speaks about human beings seeking God's providence. This has practical benefit for the busy people of Hong Kong who are worried about " 1997." Yes, when we are really worried and anxious, why not try placing our trust in God? Prayer helps us to verbalize our concerns. This does not mean that we just tell God what we need, but that we open ourselves to the inexhaustible source of God's grace (prayer is also beneficial to us from a psychological point of view because unclear questions seem impossible of solution). Moreover, prayer makes us feel that God has taken our troubles upon His shoulders, and that He is the true source of energy for our actions. Finally, I thank Cardinal Wu for writing the introduction and Bishop Domingos Lam of Macao for his continual support, for the many outstanding theological works which provided material for this book, for the pre-publication review work of Father Savio Hon and Sister Maria Goretti Lau and for the editorial assistance of Miss Ingrid Chan. The book was written for beginners in the study of Chinese theology. It was published in the spirit of paving the way for Chinese - Catholic inter culturation. All suggestions and criticisms will be deeply appreciated.